Journal of Therapeutic Wilderness Camping – Volume 8

Journal of Therapeutic Wilderness Camping

Volume 8, No. 1 2009
______________________________________________________________________

Journal Editor: Steve Cockerham Assistant Editor: Amanda Barker

Editorial Board

Mike Angstadt, Twin Cedars Youth Services, LaGrange, GA
Steve Cockerham, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN
Rick McClintock, NATWC, Markleysburg, PA
Holly Hunter, SafePassage Adolescent Services ®, Alpharetta, GA
Angie Senic Shockley, Eckerd Youth Alternatives, Davis, WV

***

“That it’s rough out there and chancy is no surprise. Every live thing is a survivor on a kind of extended emergency bivouac.” Annie Dillard
***

Journal Articles

Journal Editorial by
Steve Cockerham

Life Lessons from the River
Elizabeth Roe

Wilderness Therapy for Adolescents: Utilizing Nature to Effect Change in Youth
Elizabeth Roe

Shift Work Dad
Micah Wheat

What is a Father to Do
Phillip Rogers

Wilderness Therapy and Spirituality
Lauren Rothwell

Procedures for Submission of Manuscripts

***

“Divinity is not playful. The universe was not made in jest but in solemn incomprehensible earnest. By a power that is unfathomably secret, and holy, and fleet. There is nothing to be done about it, but ignore it, or see. And then you walk fearlessly, eating what you must, growing wherever you can, like the monk on the road who knows precisely how vulnerable he is, who takes no comfort among death-forgetting men, and who carries his vision of vastness and might around in his tunic like a live coal which neither burns nor warms him, but with which he will not part.” Annie Dillard from Pilgrim at Tinker Creek

***

Journal Editorial
Steve Cockerham, Editor

In every majestic adventure, no matter how large or small, the transit is wrought by treat and travail. Challenge, no matter how easy or difficult, has moments of impossibility and times of repose. For the profession of wilderness and adventure therapy, weathering the storm of downward economic cycles is certainly a challenge. Yet, for those who recognize the natural processes of life, the knowledge of change is certain.

The fury of water, wind, and warmth has always evolved into calm seas, gentle breezes, and cool mornings. All things shall pass and so will the current economic crisis. Not discounting the troubles of programs closing and people laid off, difficult times are endured until sun dries the flood or showers end the drought. We can learn this from the wilderness, from nature. We know this from our youth and families. This we know from each other.
For now, during the tempest, we must hunker down and survive. This is a time to re-group, to re-think, to plan and create. Besides the trauma of gathering in and letting go, we must take the time to consider how to bring outdoor therapeutic programming into the next phase of its evolution.

Naturally, the medium for wilderness therapy is outside, among the mountains, valleys, seas, and plains, away from the accoutrements of civilization. Yet, humans communicate and share information electronically in this age. There is no place on earth that cannot be reached from the internet. We do wilderness therapy not to keep our clients in the woods forever but to become renewed and re-established, able to re-constitute and return to their lives re-invigorated by the lessons learned from the timeless patterns of nature and the healing wrought from authentic, genuine relationships. Electronic communication is now the mutation that can fill the niche in the gap between wilderness and the community.

Complex dynamical systems and chaos theory insist emergent qualities form in nature, taking phenomena operating under conditions that can combine to produce another level of phenomena, like a stream to a whirlpool or butterflies begetting hurricanes. The human adaptation of electronic communication is an extension of our capacity to influence the body and the environment for explanatory purposes.

E-com is an emergent quality of manipulating natural phenomena for communication and serves as the interface, leaping conceptual boundaries. E-com is done in a variety of ways such as email, blogging, texting, Myspace, twitter…the list keeps growing even beyond cell and walkie-talkie. What this offers is instant, frequent, timely, artful, and sometimes distracting interactions with all parties who are engaged in the therapeutic process. We can bring in the family when needed, call out for contact when appropriate, and learn from others. We now live and thrive in the global conversation of humankind.

Why not do a family session on a tele- or video conference? Why not let parents lead the serenity prayer from a speaker phone? Why not do 12 steps electronically and keep the sponsor on hold? Why not monitor elopement with Google Earth? Why not infrared nightwatch? What about one of those drones to monitor camp? How about a motion sensor in a tree? Documentation is always an issue in therapeutic programming. Here, e-com can be of tremendous benefit. Adapting to the outdoors brings a need to focus on portability and efficiency. Solar charging becomes an asset. The next generation of chores will include charging the devices. A pedal generator could be an interesting addition to camp. What a consequence for newbies or the terminally resistant!

Supervisors can maintain contact with campsite and trail, vicariously experience activities, and monitor therapeutic situations. Incident reporting can take whole new perspectives when the actual event is recorded by several people by cameras and cells. What will staff do if “everyone” is always watching…camping as a reality show.
The potential for training is tremendous – real time relevancy to augment on-going instruction. An online component to training adds new dimensions in learning for both youth and the staff. It is no great leap for online classes to happen in the cabin or even the tent, just as easily as in the den or on the back porch. All it takes is a satellite.

Let’s get real. It’s nothing more than an extension of drumming, gossip, and smoke signals. E-com does nothing that humans cannot do with the written word, gossip, and the pony express. A computer is nothing more than an elaborate typewriter and calculator, the internet simply a faster, longer string between two cans.
However, like Homo sapiens compared to Neanderthals, electronics adapt. They take the physical environment to an nth degree like adding legs to fish and wings to rats. This is the grounding of electronics. Somebody has to make the music that sounds so good on an MP3. Someone must write the words that composes an email. Somehow people have to electronically float, i.e., surf, to your website. Isn’t it interesting how website is kinda like campsite. A campsite is a metaphorical non-electronic website.

Wait! Look! Is that a light in the distance, perhaps a shooting star or the moon coming up. The recession may be coming to an end. The cycle may be on the rise. The economic stimulus may be having its effect.
Sending money through the economy by helping people spend on getting help for their youth and family members who are struggling with the challenge of living their best lives is one great way to stimulate the economy. We need good roads and bridges, strong banks and auto manufacturers, and trained soldiers and pilots, but we also need to help our people cope with modern society, with the changes wrought by the pressure of development in a post-modern world. We need the past to help us into the future and that means nature to guide the human-made. The lesson from the economic downturn is that humans have to create an economy that is based on the sustainable processes of nature. We have to bring productivity back to America.

We need to teach our students about how the world works, how to make bread from acorns, how to catch trout, how to fix the van, how to build a cabin, how to climb, swim, kayak, and lead a group. We need to design high school diploma programs that fully integrate the many activities in the wilderness. Our students can get their high school credits in the woods, along the creeks, and into the deserts. We can use the magnificent capacity of the wilderness to build character and use nature to learn human nature. Being in the wilderness magnifies the understanding of human impact on the world. Economically, this means that jobs in the future, like life in the future, will be focused on sustainability.

All that we do now for productivity will be shifting to energy from more than just fossil fuels, to the sun, the wind, the waves, water, weeds, seeds, and geothermal. We’ll generate energy from our own movements, in our shoes, when opening doors, and even walking across the room. Imagine if you could run a television from the inertial energy of sitting on a couch…you might have to stand up every now and then to keep the thing going. Well, in this case, perhaps we can at least make a remote control that’s powered by a squeeze generator, like those flashlights that never need batteries. What if you could charge the lanterns and flashlights, all the batteries for other electronics, from the juice saved from hiking, biking, and running?

What if you could throw a rock over a cliff and it would generate enough power to run a computer for an hour? It’s far simpler to build a windmill or water wheel than a computer chip. A solar-powered pack, anyone? A photovoltaic cap should be general issue. Who wouldn’t want a pedal generator for every campsite or picnic table? Which takes more energy, getting charcoal lit or using a hydrogen-powered grill? Fire in the future may come from rubbing molecules together.

The source for our success and our sustenance is fundamentally found in the wilderness. All the history of humans living off the land came together to get us to the most advanced technological state. Now we teeter on the brink of determining where to go from here. The basics to this necessary creativity are found in the natural world. The sun and the earth, it’s all right here. We’ve been living off energy stored here and we’re about to use it up, at least the stuff easy and affordable. Now we’ve got to fully integrate with the cycles of nature energized by the sun and earth.
Now, while we’ve got the energy concentrated in store, we can create a way to cycle with nature. Now, while we need to stimulate the economy with our own stored resources, we must use our energy to creating a sustainable world where we balance nature and technology, where both work together.

Survival is whatever it takes. The lesson of survival is to find and use anything available to keep on living. The lesson is not learned by using everything available to be sinfully rich and consume as much as possible.
Leave no trace is a better lesson, as well as give more than you take and make the world a better place. What is best learned from survival training is how to thrive, how to live more than seven generations and share, share alike.
Every item should be catalogued for how it can be used and re-used over and over, just in case. An economic system based on use and dump cannot handle the needs of our future. If we don’t change, most open space will be at landfills and wilderness at the zoo. A future worth giving to our children uses technology to preserve the earth. Quality of life is measured by treetops, not smokestacks.

A wilderness program needs to go to the woods but must stay connected. Survival in the 21st century is getting lost with a cell phone. Where is one without a GPS? Wherever you go, there you are.
At least know and be reassured, NATWC is there with you, trying to survive by evolving. We are from the field and struggle just like everyone else. Many of our meetings are done with conference calls. Decisions are made regularly by email. We transmit documents electronically and do the journal on computers.

Our website is a central focus, blogging and announcing, educating and communicating. We’ll ground this at the national conferences, putting all the e-stuff in perspective and renewing our purpose. That’s what makes all the tweets, blogs, emails, and e-everything else real — getting together. Come on to the NATWC conferences and we’ll put faces to the email addresses and an experience to the net.

Life Lessons from the River
Elizabeth Roe

“[She] enters the river, she is washed free;
her thoughts unrave1like weeds of
green silk: she moves downstream [....]
The trees hiss overhead. She feels their shadows.
She imagines her self clean as a fish [....]
Her prayer: to make peace with her own monstrous nature.”
—Elaine Feinstein, “At the Edge”

Years ago, I found a place that taught me more about life than any other place I have ever known. At times, the Nolichucky River has thrown me lessons with the vigor of a vicious schoolmaster, and at other moments, the haven of its waters has cradled me carefully like an only child.

My relationship with the river did not come about suddenly or expectedly; rather, it was over time and without warning that my experiences on the Nolichucky shaped me and altered my outlook. These experiences did not always happen when I was alone, either, and my interactions with others were never the same from day to day.

As a whitewater river guide, I have had the opportunity to interact with many different people in the place I love. Over the years, I have begun to notice many lessons from the river that could carry over to other aspects of my life. Some lessons have been exposed from my own mishaps and experience while other lessons have been learned from talking with fellow guides and guests.

A single run down the Nolichucky River has the power to change a life; I have been lucky in this aspect to have lived many lives, for each moment carries with it a lesson and a memory. The Nolichucky River emerges from the confluence of the Toe River and the Cane River which both flow off of Mount Mitchell, North Carolina, one of the tallest mountains in the southeastern United States.

Soon after the Nolichucky River begins, it flows into a gorge deep enough to once be considered by the Tennessee Valley Authority a good place to put a dam. As luck would have it, no dam was built because a train has run through the gorge since the late 1800’s.

The total length of the Nolichucky River is approximately 96 miles, flowing into Douglas Lake, exiting into the French Broad and merging into the Tennessee River, the Ohio River, and finally ending in the Mississippi River. For eight miles, the only access to the river is to float it or (illegally) hike the tracks.

As a guide primarily working on the Nolichucky River in North Carolina and Tennessee, I have had the privilege to take many people whitewater rafting. The beauty of the Nolichucky River is that it is free-flowing, which means it relies on the water table and a good amount of rainfall to keep water in the riverbed. Each day that we embark on a trip will be unique.

Without a recent rain, the river can be slightly lower than it was the day before, and with a mere shower, the river can rage to flood levels. Combined with these variables is the fact that each river trip involves different guests and different river guides than the day before. On a typical summer trip, guests are offered two different types of crafts: a community raft that will accompany other guests and a guide, or their own personal craft, which is a one-person inflatable kayak affectionately called a ducky.

After the rafts and duckies have been loaded on top of the bus, the trip leader divides the groups into different boats, each having their own guide for the day. When the numbers work out and we have several guests in duckies, there will also be a guide in a ducky to give the guests more personal attention. On the 45-rninute bus ride to the put-in, the trip leader creates a wishful master plan. This plan involves maneuvers which take into account the number of guides on the trip and the river level; both factors are essential in assuring that the proper risk management positions (safeties) will be covered and the trip moves downstream as a unit. Typically we discuss the first three miles, where all of the Class IV rapids are located, and then it is usually time for lunch. At the put-in before we get on the water, guides talks with their crews or their group of ducks. The ducks are given more details about how to maneuver their crafts, read our hand signals, self rescue, and basic water reading.

At each rapid, safeties and directional positions are assigned to best help the duckies navigate through a particular rapid. If there is uncertainty about the best way to reach a safety or directional position, other guides are helpful in describing how to achieve the desired position. So, it does not always matter if you can get to every position on the river, but it is imperative to be helpful teaching others. One person cannot do it all and cohesion among the guides makes everything more enjoyable. When the entire group has been given their instructions, we head out together. If the master plan transpires, the guides make the job look very easy, but the river is a temperamental entity… even the best-laid strategies can shatter like glass without warning at the water’s whim. How a river guide reacts to a sudden twist, turn, or upheaval of a boat through a rapid will affect the outcome of the boat’s maneuver at the following rapid.

In a similar way, how you act and react within your surroundings is up to you, and your past and present behavior transpires to affect the future obstacles and events you will encounter. Each rapid can be considered a separate event, and hopefully we, the guides and guests, have learned something from the previous rapid. Perhaps on any particular day, the guides are more animated and charismatic or more attentive to a particular guest, just as the guests may be more responsive to their guide’s commands, having realized that the guides are indeed working on their behalf. When guides appear disappointed by a mistake at a particular rapid, the customers can see this unspoken displeasure and begin to lose confidence in themselves and their trust in the guide’s encouragement. This, in turn, makes them less able to help themselves because their confidence is shaken.

The courage required to navigate the rapids demands one to be open and able to adapt to the ever-changing surroundings. When a guide non-verbally communicates his or her disappointment to the guests, the outcome is devastating and travels through the group like a ripple from a sinking stone. At times it can be difficult for guides to understand and remember the experience of the river from the guests’ perspective, because their ability to navigate the rapids has become almost second nature. Irritation at prior events of the day will only lead to further annoyance when a communication barrier forms between the guests and their guide. A guide’s desire to have their trip run smoothly downstream should not overshadow their desire to help guests have an enjoyable time on the river.

Many people who go whitewater rafting do so with a commercial outfitter because of a belief that they are in good hands. The anticipation is usually more frightening than the actual event. When the guides take the time to explain what to expect on the river and how to help themselves if any problems arise, most guests are put at ease. This bit of extra time taken at the beginning of the trip can save the guests from a great deal of discomfort and can boost their confidence, making a more pleasant trip for both the guest and the guides. A guest is, by definition, vulnerable from the start, having no choice but to trust a person they may have never met. Their departure from their “comfort zone” often creates a rush of adrenaline, a feeling of suspense and, more often than not, fears. It behooves every river guide to remember these feelings of apprehension and to not only respect their customers’ anxiousness, but to remember that it is not unfounded- the start of a good day on the river can easily turn deadly.

A guide must never forget that, for these customers, the experience of rafting gives them the chance to try something new and later return to their normal lives and jobs with a new appreciation for the level of security or adventure they have come to expect. In the same way, river guides, in getting to know their customers in a day on the river, may also gain an appreciation for other people, the work that they do, and the lives they lead.

Each of us could probably be employed at a job that we did not necessarily like for a short time, but in the long run this would leave us feeling unhappy and often unchallenged and discontent. Regardless of the income involved, we should do something about which we feel passionate. Economically and psychologically speaking, we need different people to do different jobs in our lives. The level of danger involved in working as, a raft guide is not for everyone; but after all, life is so much more interesting when it is lived and filled by a diversity of people.

Even if you do the same job day after day, when the element of nature is involved, you may experience different results and, as a consequence, learn to expect the unexpected. Just as it is necessary to be flexible in maneuvering a boat down the river, so also is it imperative that a river guide must be willing to take chances at a split second’s notice. Such a metaphor carries over in life, for in an attempt to follow a strict protocol or to simply not “rock the boat”, one may miss the opportunity to find a better, more efficient, or more exciting way to perform a task and experience life.

Throughout the years of my work as a river guide, I have come to realize that people’s thoughts and emotions run very much like the current of a river. People are ever-changing, flowing with or bracing against what is going on around them. The current on the top of the water often flows at a different rate and in different directions than the current in the middle or the bottom of the river, just as people do not often reveal their deep-felt emotions, which run like the sub-currents of a river’s deepest waters. Successful river guides cloak certain waves of their disappointment, anger, and fear for the sake of their customers, burying them deep into the sub-current and revealing only the necessary mask of an encouraging smile or a confident pat on a frightened guest’s back. The element of body language can be manipulated to disguise one’s real emotions, but it is also the key to the revelation of a person’s deeper currents.

Beyond the setting of a river raft trip, the sight of a friend’s bowed head speaks louder than her verbal assurance that she is having a great day. The universal language of the river is reflected in our own currents. Just as the shape of the water running over certain rocks reveals to a river guide that there is a dangerous chasm lurking beneath, the crossed arms of a customer during the pre-trip speech denotes a defensive posture, protecting a deeper sub-current of fear. Keeping a keen eye on these non-verbal signals throughout the years has helped me realize that the same observations are just as powerful in all of my relationships. I have learned that by being open to explore and accept a person’s wide range of surface emotions, they may, in time, willingly reveal to you a glimpse of their deeper, more vulnerable currents and allow you to know them better.

When guiding a raft with first-time customers, there is one assumption that a guide knows immediately; that is, these guests are not only mentally embarking on a journey of the unknown, they are physically as well unprepared for the undertaking. Their bodies are unaccustomed to the movements they are about to make. The actions of repetitive paddling, constantly bracing their legs inside the boat to keep their balance, and a possible swim (or several!) will leave their muscles sore and stiff in the days following the day’s adventure. Knowing this, raft guides take some tamer routes downriver, often physically compensating for the customers’ bodily limitations by paddling more vigorously themselves to avoid dangerous spots. A successful raft guide has the ability to use both the river and the boat as an extension of the body. One way or another you will get to the bottom of the rapid. You are only in control of how you respond—physically as well as psychologically—to what is going on around you. To be physically and physiologically fit is to trust in yourself and in your capabilities. You must trust in your body to know what to do.

You can attempt to control aspects in your life, but when you finally understand that, at times, relinquishing your efforts to control everything around you and instead “going with the flow” you may realize that the situation can work out well and you may even learn a better way to do things. On the river, it is the progress through the rapids that carries the rewards, not the final destination at the end of the day’s run. Many different sayings attest to the fulfillment being in the journey and not the destination. It is not when or where you end up; it is taking the journey that counts.

The direction of one’s journey also determines the degree of gratification grasped along the way. A raft guide learns quickly that it is much easier to float with the direction of the water than to fight it, even when it seems that the only way out of a sticky situation is to wrestle one’s way upriver. The mental and physical energy spent in fighting a situation more powerful than yourself is wasted, whereas the choice to relax and enjoy the journey with the forces of fate in control can leave one refreshed and in the midst of a new, wondrous experience.
These new perceptions that you learn can only come to you if you are open to new experiences, which is only possible when you are able to overcome your inherent fear of the unknown and unexplored. But being closed off to a new undertaking-fighting the current even to exhaustion—-can be detrimental to a person when factors out of one’s control conflict with the direction one wants to go, on the river and in life. Flexibility is imperative to a fruitful existence.

This physical and spiritual adaptability directs the passages and routes we take throughout life’s voyage. We are given every day, and each moment within it, the gift of choice, direction, and time. In the boating world, the downstream path taken by a raft is referred to as a “line”. The journey of this line involves crucial decisions made by the river guide, several of which will determine how safe or dangerous the descent downriver will be. The presence of customers in the raft demand that safety ranks highest in priority, but within this realm are options for adventure. “Surfing” a rapid at a safe water level, for instance, makes for a more memorable trip than just taking the smoother, less eventful line in all of the rapids.

Indeed, most raft guides are single-craft boaters as well. When I am in my own boat, I often take a riskier line for the sheer joy of it. Knowing my own abilities, the chances I take sharpen my abilities as well as make for an exhilarating venture. At these times, my boat and I are one creature, and the waters of the river my sly playmate. It is now that I choose to leave my comfort zone, by taking risks I would not attempt if there were lives other than my own at stake. With every gamble I wager, the river rewards me, giving me new life in gasps of breath and a quickened heart. It is in these moments that I remember who I am, what my body is made for, and revel in the sheer magic of existence. These glimpses of realization are hard-won, however, and cannot be attained without courage. None of the lessons I have learned have been attained by sitting on my couch at home. The river is life itself; it gives back only what you fight for.

There are times, in life and on the river that you bet on a good hand and lose. Such are the hazards of playing a worthy game. On the river, defeat may result in physical injury even if, as a raft guide, I have given my customers the best odds for victory in a safe downstream run. The river’s lessons are wise and silent, but if a guide remains humble, the words of any admonishment can be heard: Although we “live forward; we understand backwards”, as the philosopher William James has written. It is here, when I have the blessing to work with first-time rafting customers, that I am given a chance to aid the river in teaching others lessons that they will carry with them the next time they face a challenge, attempt it, and fail. Though I am ignorant as to how many of my guests take formidable risks in their daily lives, I do know how it feels to sit upright and confident in a boat, only to be thrown headlong into a rapid’s savage waters.

There is not a person in existence who is not shocked, at first baptism, by the power of a river’s current. Even though I have my throw rope poised and ready to snag a swimmer, I remember how it feels to be on the watery end of that rope when it is thrown; I know the look of shock and fear on that guests face. All the lecturing and warning in the pre-trip speech may evaporate out of a panicked customer’s mind in an instant. It is at this moment that I must remain calm, meet the other’s eyes in a confident gaze, and teach serenity in the midst of terror. The river becomes, then, a catalyst for human interaction. While it is itself a lone wolf, rushing mindlessly alone and of its own accord, we as humans are pack animals and exist for, among, and because of others. Through we each walk our own path, we are meant to walk it, at times, with others. As Einstein once professed, “Only a life for others is worthwhile.”

A single day on the river has the power to change a life forever. The most memorable lessons are taught in a split second, while the student scrambles in the clutches of fear and helplessness. As a teacher and a role model it is then, after all, that I have a customer’s full attention. No river guide is infallible, but each is a testament to his or her own ability, knowledge, and courage. To share the fruits of these attributes is the greatest gift a guide can give his guests.

The fact is, our bodies are rivers: both designed for movement and for stagnation when still too long. The river’s flow is forward, and time marks its passage. Therein lies the best lesson, warning, and encouragement we need for our own journey through life’s currents downstream. When you are on the river, you have the opportunity to interact with a force of nature. Through its waters are physically more powerful than one human could ever hope to be, one’s intellect, courage, and ambition creates within an individual a strength to be reckoned. To match wits with the river is to feel the raw virility of nature-to be struck humble and changed forever. To be part of that power is a gift and to share it with others is a privilege.

Wilderness Therapy for Adolescents:
Utilizing Nature to Effect Change in Youth

Elizabeth Roe

Wilderness therapy is an effective therapeutic intervention for adolescents with behavioral problems and conduct disorders. Wilderness therapy utilizes wild and natural areas in the outdoors, typically a setting different than that of the adolescents’ comfort zone. Physical exercise has a positive impact on the adolescents’ mood. Studies reveal that nature helps effect change in at-risk youth. Rehabilitation of the mind and body has long-lasting effects on the youth. The natural environment and the wilderness are major contributing factors necessary to effect change in the lives and outlooks of juvenile delinquents. Wilderness therapy utilizes physical activity and nature to elevate the adolescents’ mood and bring about change in the adolescents behavior. Integrating wilderness therapy and traditional western medicine as a holistic approach can have the lasting effects in an adolescent’s positive change.

Introduction

Medical statistics consistently illustrate a positive physiological correlation between an individual’s level of physical fitness and the measure of that person’s psychological well-being. The mind-body connection has expanded into a form of rehabilitation where an adolescent’s exposure to nature and the physical challenges of the wilderness itself becomes a catalyst for psychological growth and emotional repair. Reformation of adolescent behavior, based on an immersion of adolescents into a wilderness setting, has flourished and become an important aspect of wilderness therapy. Many wilderness therapy practitioners understand that what they do makes a difference in the lives of the adolescents with whom they work, but they are often unable to pinpoint exactly why exposing adolescents to nature for an extended period of time is beneficial.

Perhaps if therapists and parents understand how and why adolescent involvement with nature is therapeutic, they could better assist their children to attain a sense of well-being. Exposing adolescents to the natural environment and the wilderness may produce a metamorphosis in the sense of self-worth, as well as their sense of value as integral individuals within a world that must rely on positive relationships in order to function. The interaction of the individual with the natural environment and the wilderness are major contributing factors necessary to effect change in the lives and outlooks of juvenile delinquents. Integrating wilderness therapy and traditional western medicine in a holistic approach may contribute to lasting effects in positive change.

History of Juvenile Justice

The juvenile justice system is designed specifically to handle minors whose crimes do not require movement into the adult criminal justice system. In 1825, The Society for the Prevention of Juvenile Delinquency began to argue for the separation of juvenile justice from that of the adult justice system. Before 1825, children were housed in the same detention centers as adults and progressive reformers wanted to separate the juveniles from the adults. So, the reformers created the House of Refuge in New York. Exclusively established for children, the House of Refuge was utilized to accommodate any juveniles, not just those charged with a crime, that were thought to be incorrigible or wayward, including poor children and orphans. The New York model was followed by other states, primarily in major cities.

Prior to the establishment of the juvenile justice system, children as young as seven years old could stand trial, since they were perceived as small adults with an equal capacity as adults for reason. Adolescents were not thought to be as culpable as adults when they committed crimes, because it was thought that the adolescents were less mature. The philosophy that children and adolescents are not cognitively or morally developed as adults is rooted in the educational reform movements of Europe during the sixteenth century. Howard N. Snyder and Melissa Sickmund state that those children under the age of seven “were presumed to be incapable of criminal intent and were, therefore, exempt from prosecution and punishment.”

By the 1840s, an additional 53 Houses of Refuge were established throughout the country. The Progressive Era reformers believed the root of juvenile delinquency was poor moral education and standards within the juveniles’ home and also as a result of the industrialization in the United States. The reformers advocated for rehabilitation and educational components within the juvenile justice system, not just punishment. As populations within the House of Refuge expanded, accounts of overcrowding began to surface along with reports of deplorable conditions and brutality toward the juveniles. In an attempt to reform the juveniles, not just punish, training schools were established outside of cities to reduce the temptations from city life. It was believed that the rural setting would offer a more virtuous and simpler way of life.

In 1899, the first juvenile court was held in Chicago, Illinois, after the state legislation passed the Juvenile Court Act establishing the juvenile justice system. The principle of the juvenile justice system was for the judge to act as a father or guardian to the juvenile, following the British doctrine parents patriae, the state as parent. The doctrine declared that the state should intervene to protect both the juvenile and the community; therefore, no attorneys were necessary for either the plaintiffs or defendants. It was the responsibility of the courts to diagnose, treat, and provide care for the juveniles, in the manner that they were not receiving within their own household. All aspects of the juveniles’ situation, even those not pertaining to the case, were taken into account when the juvenile went before the judge. The juveniles were the focus of the judges not the crime that the juveniles were being accused of committing. If a juvenile was to be incarcerated, then there was also an expectation for the juveniles to be imprisoned in a separate facility from imprisoned adults. The separation was to prevent the juvenile from being corrupted by the adults.

Rehabilitation of the juvenile offender, followed by the successful reintroduction of the juvenile into society as a productive citizen, was the main objective for establishing the juvenile justice system in 1899. Because the proceedings were conducted informally, there was an expectation for the community to aid in the juveniles’ rehabilitation by taking the juvenile home with them and showing the juvenile the proper ways to conduct themselves. During the 1920s, adulthood was legally determined to begin at 18 years; so the juvenile justice system had jurisdiction over all juveniles no matter what offense was committed. The juvenile courts could waive jurisdiction on a case-by-case decision and have the minor tried in the adult courts. The changes in determining the age of adulthood coincided with many of the changes in child labor laws which began in the decades around 1900. To keep children out of the work force, child labor laws and the requirement of universal public education were introduced by the legislators.

By the 1950s, the juvenile justice system became increasingly criticized for following inadequate guidelines because many juvenile incarcerations were being attributed to the lack of due process rights for the juveniles. Many of the due process rights granted to adults were not granted to the adolescents, because it was believed that the courts were looking out for the best interest of the juvenile. Critics of the juvenile justice system argued that the courts could not wholly safeguard both the juvenile and the community. Another criticism was that the juvenile detention centers had become just like the adult detention centers where the focus was on punishment not rehabilitation.

In the 1966 decision of Kent v. United States, the Supreme Court recognized that the juveniles were not afforded the same due process rights as the adults, but they were receiving similar punishments. The decision passed in 1967 granting juveniles several due process rights for example, the right to counsel, to confrontation and cross-examination of witnesses and the privilege against self-incrimination.

The Gault decision recognized that the juvenile justice system was not a mere civil proceeding and therefore required the same constitutional safeguards that were afforded to adult criminal justice proceedings. In the 1980s, the pendulum for punishment, not rehabilitation, of the juvenile offenders began to swinging back when conservatives began pointing out that during the 1960s and 1970s the crime and delinquency rates had increased. Again, reformers began to question the stance of the juvenile justice system that adolescents were less culpable than adults. The new reformers desired to have juveniles held accountable for their crimes, even if to a limited extent. The age of the juvenile was be taken into consideration and linked to the level of responsibility for the crime that the juvenile was charged.

Politicians did not want to appear soft on crime so many legislators enacted “get tough” policies for crimes. The method utilized to reduce crime was increasing punishment through deterrence and incapacitation. Over the years the “get tough” policies have not proven effective and many states have discontinued the policy because of the high financial and social costs. Once again the focus has shifted to prevention and rehabilitation among many criminologists, the federal government, and certain states. Robert Agnew (2005) has stated, “well-designed and well-implemented prevention and rehabilitation programs can reduce rates of delinquency anywhere from 20 percent to 50 percent.” Effective preventive and rehabilitation programs have several key characteristics: the focus is on the major cause of the delinquency, an intensive program, focus on juveniles that have the potential for delinquency, begin at an early age, and the counselors have a firm but friendly approach.

Alternatives to Juvenile Detention

While juvenile detention centers continue to house the largest proportion of juvenile delinquents, wilderness camps need to be recognized as equal and perhaps superior rehabilitation options. One basic advantage of the wilderness therapy facilities over juvenile detentions centers is the one-on-one communication, which is a problem in larger centers that house an overwhelming number of juvenile offenders. Snyder and Sickmund state that most wilderness therapy programs are operated by private organizations and “tend to be smaller than public facilities.” The smaller facility size allows for an increase of personalized attention to each of the adolescents. The ratio of wilderness therapy practitioners to adolescents is lower than the ratio of detention center employees to adolescents. The smaller group sizes in the wilderness therapy programs afford the adolescent more individualized care than that found in juvenile detention centers.

Bryant Williams (2000)contends that as a result of some previous form of neglect or abuse, many juvenile delinquents have difficulty trusting adult authority figures. Lack of trust is difficult to overcome in a juvenile detention center, because many employees cycle in and out of the center throughout the day. The adolescents are not given the chance to view the juvenile detention center employee during a time of adversity, as they can in the wilderness setting with the wilderness therapy practitioner. The amount of contact between the adolescent and the wilderness therapy practitioner allows the adolescent to develop a trust that facilitates openness. The opportunity for contact between the wilderness therapy practitioner and the adolescent is unique in the wilderness setting.

The wilderness therapy industry primarily focuses on adolescents because juveniles care is still regulated by adults. The utilization of wilderness therapy can be an effective therapy for almost anybody without regard to one’s socio-economic status, race, ethnicity, sex, or age. When a person turns 18 years old, unless ordered by the court, that person can choose to leave the wilderness therapy facility. Typically, the age ranges for wilderness therapy are between ten and eighteen years old; however, other ages benefit from wilderness therapy. The adolescents entering the wilderness therapy programs usually are diagnosed with behavioral problems and conduct disorders that can range in severity from case to case.

The diagnosis of the adolescents in the ten to twelve year old range typically includes Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD). The older adolescents are diagnosed with depression more often than are the younger adolescents. There are other wilderness therapy models that focus on adults rather than youth. Again, because of age, they can choose to leave at any time. Eighteen to twenty-four year old also benefit from the wilderness therapy model to assist them in controlling substance abuse problems or weight management problems.

Origins of Wilderness Therapy

The overt discovery that nature can have a positive effect of the well-being of an individual occurred in 1901, as a result of overcrowding in the New York Asylum for the Insane in New York City. Intending to reduce the spread of tuberculosis to healthy patients, doctors began moving tubercular psychiatric patients from their hospital beds to tents set up on the hospital grounds. After time, those displaced patients began to show an improvement in their mental and physical health. The elements attributed to the patients’ improvements were the personalized care by the staff and being outdoors. Returning patients to the indoors and removing the tents occurred when the threat of tuberculosis subsided.

Credit for the intentional use of wilderness for therapeutic purposes belongs to Outward Bound. Outward Bound, founded in Wales in 1941 by Kurt Hahn and Lawrence Holt, became the first organization to promote wilderness therapy. In 1920, Kurt Hahn began developing his style for fostering individuals’ growth during his position as headmaster of Salem Schule, a school founded by Prince Max of Baden, Germany’s last imperial Chancellor, which aimed for personal responsibility, kindness, and justice.

Then in 1934, Hahn continued his work by founding the Gordonstoun School in Scotland, where he promoted honesty, adventure, and a sense of service to fellow people. Hahn then began a joint venture with Lawrence Holt. A British shipping baron, Holt saw value in having British sailors learn vital survival skills, other than those being taught during World War II. The purpose of Outward Bound was to train young merchant seamen to become more independent, self-reliant, physically fit, and more resourceful. The name Outward Bound is a nautical term utilized for when a ship leaves the safety of the harbor for the open seas. The original curriculum of Outward Bound encouraged character development, as much as it encouraged academic achievement.
Through outdoor adventures, Hahn’s experiential teaching encouraged participants to view themselves differently by pushing their preconceived personal limits and finding new possibilities during personal growth. The outdoor group adventures challenged participants to work together to assist in developing a sense of camaraderie that helps the individual to learn compassion for others.

The desire to expand the coverage of Outward Bound was the motivation for founding the Outward Bound Trust in 1946, a Board of Directors that was responsible for establishing charters for other schools and generating funds for those schools oversaw the trust. Outward Bound began to expand in 1951 when it opened a school in Eskdale, in the English Lake District. Subsequently, Outward Bound expanded to Africa, Germany, Australia, Singapore, Hong Kong, and other cities and countries. After working as the director of activities for Outward Bound in 1951-1952, American Josh Miner found the inspiration to expand Outward Bound to the United States.

The Colorado Outward Bound School opened in 1962 and became official in 1963, after receiving its charter from the trust. The Colorado Outward Bound School changed its name to Outward Bound West when other Outward Bound Schools began establishing themselves throughout the United States during the 1960s and beyond. Wherever an Outward Bound school establishes itself, the school utilizes the natural resources surrounding it for experiential learning, so that the wilderness becomes the classroom.
The expansion of Outward Bound to the United States assisted populations other than sailors to benefit from small-group therapeutic activities in the outdoors. Outward Bound continued expanding and developing different programs to target many populations. In 1975, Outward Bound Discovery emerged in Florida to aid the development of adolescents, young adults, families, schools and communities. Outward Bound Discovery assists struggling adolescents who are at-risk of academic failure, dropping out of school, delinquency or becoming chronic offenders reach their full potential by emphasizing on the present situation and how to create a better future for the adolescent.

The Outward Bound philosophy began to flourish and throughout the country, Outward Bound Urban Centers were being established. In 1962, Outward Bound Los Angles was established to promote environmental responsibility and self-development within urban youth. In 1986, the Baltimore Chesapeake Bay Outward Bound Center (BCBOBC) was founded as a community-based Urban Center utilizing the Outward Bound philosophy toward teaching youth to improve their self-reliance, advance the youth’s interconnectedness with their community, and the environment. Followed by the New York City Outward Bound in 1987, then in 1988 the Thompson Island Outward Bound Education Center was established in Boston, Massachusetts. North Carolina Outward Bound expanded to form Outward Bound Atlanta in 1990.Then in 1992, the Philadelphia Outward Bound Center (POBC) was established through a partnership with business and community leaders.

Beginning in the late 1980s, Outward Bound initiated a joint project with Harvard Graduate School of Education to develop a curriculum to bring experiential learning to schools. The joint venture resulted in Expeditionary Learning Schools Outward Bound (ELS), a comprehensive kindergarten through twelfth grade educational design. The primary objective was to begin a national urban education initiative to build on this work and to identify, develop, and replicate its most effective models of urban and school-based programming then expand the curriculum to other schools. The popularity of experiential learning can be demonstrated by the attractiveness of Outward Bound and represented by the 60,000 participants that go through one of the programs each year.

Defining Wilderness Therapy

Traditional talk therapies incorporate several different theoretical approaches that specify how to conduct each of the basic therapies. Unlike traditional talk therapies, wilderness therapy does not utilize one particular theoretical approach that provides a clear definition of wilderness therapy. At present, several different groups are in the process of devising a unified definition of wilderness therapy. There are many similarities between wilderness therapy and traditional therapies, such as the therapists’ desire for the client to experience personal growth and learn positive coping skills, but a better understanding of what wilderness therapy can offer to facilitate change in at-risk youth, as well as the differences setting it apart from traditional therapy, must be addressed.

Fletcher and Hinkle (2002) point out several differences: “the setting, the use of real and perceived risk, additional required skills, additional ethical considerations, an emphasis on processing and metaphor, and transfer of learning to psychological, educational, sociological, physical, and spiritual benefits” (p. 278). Several of the additional required skills that adolescents learn during their stays at wilderness therapy facilities are making fire by different means than matches or a lighter, cooking over the open fire, camping, and hiking. The actual definition of wilderness therapy is difficult to grasp because there are many different programs that utilize their own versions of wilderness therapy. There is a common core to the definition wilderness therapy among practitioners of wilderness therapy, but the different groups do not agree on the finer details.

To create discussion among professionals and those concerned with wilderness therapy, Keith C. Russell (2001) summarized several different definitions of wilderness therapy in an attempt to create “a consistent and accepted definition.” In an effort to combine the definitions of wilderness therapy, Russell presents three key elements: theoretical basis, practice, and expected outcomes. The theoretical basis of wilderness therapy requires juveniles to accept responsibility for their actions and to learn how to make good decisions for themselves. The wilderness therapy practitioner does not need to impose artificial punishments on the adolescents, because the practitioner allows the adolescent to learn from natural consequences. Some examples of natural consequences are that the adolescents will get wet and maybe cold if they choose to not put on their raincoat. When it begins to rain or if the adolescents are hungry, they must take the responsibility to start the fire for cooking their food or they will eat cold food or they just do not eat. By stepping back from imposing superficial rules on the adolescents, the wilderness therapy practitioner allows the adolescents to see that their actions do have consequences. When adolescents realize that they can determine consequences, the realization assists them to be more responsible for their actions.

Adolescents who have difficulty with adults in positions of authority are given an opportunity to view adults in a different way. The wilderness therapy practitioner allows nature to be the force for change. An adult continues to wield the authority, but that authority extends to knowledge that the adolescents will eventually desire to understand and accomplish on their own. The authority that the adults hold is in their ability to make living and traveling in the wilderness more comfortable. This knowledge extends to starting fires, backpacking, setting up sleeping areas, and various outdoor adventures.

The practice of wilderness therapy also has common elements. Clients in wilderness therapy typically progress through different levels of personal growth at their own pace. To begin the transition through the different levels, Russell states that first clients must be removed “from the destructive environments that perpetuated their behaviors.” After being placed in the wilderness therapy setting, the adolescent’s interactions with peers assist the client to learn how to develop and maintain relationships with other people during daily interactions. Developing and maintaining relationships contributes to personal growth, which leads to an increase in social responsibility.

Preparing the adolescent to return home or to an after-care facility is a final stage for wilderness therapy facilities. Some of the better wilderness therapy facilities offer wraparound services for adolescents about to return home. Wraparound services incorporate the option for the adolescent to return to the wilderness therapy facility for a short visit or a counselor may be assigned to the family for up to one year. The counselor will conduct in-house visits to make the transition home smoother. In the beginning the visits will be more frequent, but over time they will become less frequent until the visits eventually stop. If the family requires continued assistance, then the counselor will provide information about other resources so that the family can receive additional help.

The desired outcome of wilderness therapy is the same as any other therapy, and that is for the clients to experience personal growth and be able to learn positive coping mechanisms. By completing a wilderness therapy program, adolescents can acquire a concrete sense of accomplishment. The individual can transfer a sense of accomplishment to future obstacles the he/ she may encounter in life. Russell states that adolescents achieve increased “physical health and well-being, which may help clients feel better about themselves” (Russell, 2001, p. 278). During their time at the wilderness therapy facility, adolescents learn how to express themselves effectively so that they can attain their desired results through positive behavior. When the adolescents can effectively express themselves, they will be able to cope with situations that have become mentally or physically difficult and require more patience.

Wilderness therapy can be perceived as confusing and mysterious, as if conceived as a form of therapy distinctly different from the other traditional talk therapies. Wilderness therapy involves doing any other form of therapy in wild and natural areas. Wilderness therapy is like all of the other traditional talk therapies including, gestalt, person-centered, cognitive-behavioral, and psychodynamic approaches. The difference between wilderness therapy and traditional talk therapies are the locations that they are conducted; wilderness therapy is conducted in an outside environment. The wilderness area does not have to be difficult to reach and there can be a few man-made structures within the chosen area, but the required wilderness environment is typically than simply going to the front yard.

Benefits of Wilderness Therapy

The natural environment and the wilderness are the factors inherently necessary to effect changes in adolescents who have conduct disorders and will not communicate with a traditional talk therapist. Wilderness therapy utilizes exercise and physical tasks to assist the adolescents in elevating their emotional well-being. In a wilderness therapy program, adolescents are able to get back to the basic necessities of daily survival such as eating and maintaining a living area. The adolescents benefit from the natural environment when they are uprooted from their familiar manmade environment and removed from the daily distractions and conveniences of their home life. To effect change in juvenile delinquents, wilderness therapy programs utilize exercise or physical activities to elevate the emotional well-being of the adolescents. Caltabiano (1995) discussed the link between leisure and an increased level of mental and physical health and included outdoor active sports in her definition of leisure. Caltabiano stated that there is a direct effect hypothesis, which postulates a beneficial effect of leisure on health (either psychological, physiological or spiritual).

Keith Russell and Dianne Phillips-Miller (2002) found participants in a wilderness therapy program required physical challenge to facilitate change in negative behaviors. After the completion of the wilderness therapy program, the researchers conducted interviews with the adolescents to understand from their points of view what parts of the program were effective. Eleven of the twelve respondents stated the difficulty of completing the program elevated their self-confidence. When many of the adolescents enter a wilderness therapy facility, they do not have the ability to complete difficult tasks. But completing difficult tasks in the wilderness therapy teaches the adolescent to persevere even in the face of adversity. Wilderness therapy has several therapeutic components that Michael Caulkins, Dave White, and Keith Russell (2005) attempted to isolate from physical exercise to determine their benefits on adolescents. They conducted a study to determine what effect backpacking had on effecting changes in adolescents’ with problem behaviors. The subjects of the study were six female adolescents and three female counselors.

Caulkins joined the group as a participant observer for several weeks and conducted interviews one week before the six clients were to finish their treatment. During the interviews, the women reported that the benefits of backpacking were both physical and mental. The backpacking was more strenuous and demanding, both physically and mentally than many of the adolescents previous experiences; therefore, they had to push themselves harder than they had in past situations. Exceeding their known physical and mental limits gave them a perception of competence in their ability to complete physically and/ or mentally challenging tasks. Perceiving a higher level of competence translated to an increase in self-efficacy for the women. Caulkins, White, and Russell (2005) defined self-efficacy as “a personal feeling of assurance to overcome emotional or physical obstacles” (p. 131). Self-efficacy includes a deeper understanding of physical competence, because the individual internalizes self-efficacy. After returning home, the adolescents continue to benefit from increased self-efficacy. The women claimed that the experience of backpacking increased their personal awareness and recognition of personal responsibility. The women also were better able to recognize the effect they had on others through their behavior. The intensity of the backpacking was a unifying factor for the women because hiking was a group activity that could only move as fast or far as the weakest member. This cooperation aided the women in developing empathy for those backpacking with them.
Removed physically from daily distractions by a wilderness therapy program, adolescents in the natural environment are forced to solve the problems of daily living. In our technological world, there are many distractions and conveniences that disconnect people from the natural environment. Guenter Amesberger (1998) discussed the three key issues that have affected the direction of outdoor adventure education and how to increase the interconnectedness between people and the environment. The first issue that Amesberger posed was the question of the connection between the mind and body. Amesberger questioned if the modern form of education is adequate for an individuals development. As humans began to visualize themselves as rational creatures capable of intellect, they may have rationalized that nature was something to be used and controlled. Nature no longer controlled humans and as civilizations progressed there was also a growing distance between a people and nature.

The second issue in the debate was the relationship between the individual and society. As civilizations grow and change at a rapid rate, some people feel that they are not in control of this and become marginalized or experience malaise and angst. In outdoor educational settings, clients can learn what they have control over in their lives and gain a sense of empowerment that can transfer home with them. Having a sense of empowerment can assist the client to create social change and improve communities. As social creatures, individuals enjoy the feeling of belonging and when individuals feel that they are disconnected from society, those individuals may experience chaos in their life.
The third issue to the debate is on the relationship between individuals and the environment. As environmental concern grows and the political agenda shifts to protect the environment, people can experience direct contact with nature through outdoor education programs. Giving people a sense of connectedness with the environmental will assist conservation efforts. Anita Pryor, Cathryn Carpenter, and Mardie Townsend (2005) claim that humans need the environment to support the healing of disorders that are socially constructed such as conduct disorders, rather than biological conditions such as schizophrenia or severe manic depression. They claimed that the rapid rate of humans’ technological advancement places an immense deal of strain on the physical and emotional parts of our bodies.
Because, biologically, humans evolve more slowly than does their mental ability to create new technologies, their ability to cope with the technology and the faster pace of life can create social disorders. Even though humans create the technology they use, individuals need to control the degree of influence that the technology has on them and their lives. Amesberger (1998) agreed, stating that humans are forced to cope with the culture that they have created for themselves and many times that culture creates the problems for the individual. Pryor, Carpenter, and Townsend (2005) stated that the preservation of environmental health is the responsibility of humans who, as a group, are also the ones responsible for the detriment of the environment. They asserted “outdoor education and bush adventure therapy programs assist to reconnect urban-based individuals with nature.” (p. 2). For an individual to benefit from the positive effects of nature, that individual cannot be forced to see the beauty of nature and the wilderness. Individuals can only be encouraged to view nature as restorative through positive experiences in nature; as a consequence, the individuals may acquire a different perspective of themselves and their places in society.

Fletcher and Hinkle (2002) listed several possible benefits of integrating nature, wilderness, and counseling such as psychological, sociological, educational, physical, and spiritual effects that improve self-concept, personal efficacy, self-confidence, and well-being. An overall better understanding of what a wilderness therapy program can provide for individuals will encourage the use of wilderness therapy. The typical western societal approaches toward many problems are that they are puzzles to be solved; therefore, to solve the puzzle each segment must be separated, categorized, and dissected. The scientific and experimental approach desires testable and repeatable results so that when a treatment works that treatment can be utilized on other patients. Medical disorders are some examples of problems that western society typically attempts to diagnose so there can be a label then an attempt to solve the problem by addressing the symptoms for treatment.

In an attempt understand how wilderness therapy can be integrated within the typical western societal medical model, Denise Mitten (2004) examined what wilderness therapy offers and similarities to other previously accepted medicines. Mitten indicated that worldwide acceptance of complementary and alternative medicines are increasing because people are seeking alternative ways to address medical and mental disorders.
Mitten argued that wilderness therapy should be considered a complementary medicine (medicines used together with conventional medicine) and an alternative medicine (medicines used in place of conventional medicine) because wilderness therapy fits within the criteria set forth by the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM), a federal agency in the United States government.

The categories for the inclusion of therapies into National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicines are: alternative medical systems, biologically based therapies, manipulative and body-based methods, energy therapy, and mind-body intervention. Mitten described how expanding the connection between the mind and body illustrates how the mind has the capacity to influence functions of the body and how symptoms can be manipulated or controlled by the mind. Examples of interventions that utilize the mind-body connection are yoga, art therapy, pet/companion therapy, and biofeedback. Among individuals and select groups of people, the mind-body techniques are gaining status and popularity for their effectiveness in boosting the individuals’ well-being. But the medical community has not embraced the holistic approach to healing individuals because the holistic approach requires an understanding the problems root and can take too much time.

As a part of their therapeutic intervention, wilderness therapy programs utilize several mind-body interventions; therefore, Mitten contends that wilderness therapy programs meet the criteria for the NCCAM as a complementary and alternative medicine.
Developing various forms of physical activity and movement within wilderness therapy programs establishes the criteria for considering the program and intervention as a mind-body therapy. Individuals utilize meditation, another mind-body intervention, to reduce stress; often being in nature gives a person a feeling similar to that of meditating. Daily interactions with the other persons can create interconnectedness among those individuals, yet another mind-body intervention. Wilderness therapy program assists adolescents to build interconnectedness with those around them. Living together, the adolescents must learn to cope with one another and work out differences to live in a harmonious environment. Relationships demonstrate trust and are necessary to facilitate change in at-risk youth. The last mind-body intervention that Mitten explained is reflection, which can lead to healing. Clients often reflect on their new relationships and their new way of being in relationships. The mind and body have an interconnectedness that cannot be separated or viewed as two different spheres because what affects one will affect the other.

An understanding of how the body operates mechanically is important, but with that knowledge it is also vital to understand that the ailment and the treatment can have an effect on other mental or physical aspects of the person. When treating an ailment, all of the side effects related to the treatment must be taken into consideration so that the treatment does not create adverse effects for the patient. A holistic approach to helping at-risk youth aids in the long term healing of more than the adolescents’ presenting problem. Targeting the root of the problem will have the lasting effectiveness that masking the symptoms will not. Teaching the adolescent how to cope with difficult situations has a longer-lasting effect then just targeting the symptoms. Practitioners of western medicine often times have difficulty relating to approaches that have not been proven scientifically, because of their medical training in identifying symptoms, labeling those symptoms, and then prescribing a cure.

In describing the desired outcome of wilderness therapy programs, Mitten stated that many participants are sent by the court or their parents in the hope that they might achieve the emotional growth necessary for behavioral changes. The changes in adolescents occur because the wilderness therapy practitioner views the adolescent as a unique individual and does not attempt to categorize the adolescent into a standard medical model. According to Mitten, several of the changes that may occur are better mental health including changing behaviors, controlling addictions, and increased self-awareness and self-respect. The impetus for the adolescents’ positive life changes does not rest solely on the shoulders of the wilderness therapy practitioner. Rather, the power of change lies within the adolescents through their interactions with others, and within the wilderness and nature that is often uncontrollable and unpredictable. When the wilderness therapy practitioner does not have to impose artificial rules on the adolescent, then there are fewer chances for a power struggle between the individuals. In time, the adolescent may choose to emulate the wilderness therapy practitioners, because the adolescent views them as an equal and not as an authority figures.

Achieving a level of trust from the adolescent to the wilderness therapy practitioner occurs more quickly than the level of trust from an adolescent to a traditional therapist. The practical knowledge of starting a fire, setting up a tent, or filtering drinking water assists the wilderness therapy practitioners to earn the trust of the adolescents.

Conclusion

The effectiveness of wilderness therapy for influencing behavioral change in at-risk youth can be attributed in part to the different environments in which the therapeutic interactions transpire. The natural environment and the wilderness are major contributing factors necessary to effect change in at-risk youth. The activities also play a role in effecting change in the adolescents. The core of wilderness therapy lies in its displacing individuals from the familiar and placing them in a realm of the unfamiliar. The focus is taken off the participants’ delinquencies and centered on the more fundamental techniques of survival. The physical, psychological, and social efforts expended in the wilderness experience quickly outweigh any rebellious angst and other survival defense mechanisms relied on in the “real world”.

In our technologically-advanced world, slowing down the pace can have beneficial effects on a person’s well-being. This is especially true for at-risk youth who not only must deal with the fast pace of life in general, but also must contend with the changes wrought by a transitional period in their own lives, from that of a child to a young adult.
Wilderness therapy successively integrates exercise, nature, and therapy for adolescents to benefit from the holistic approach for healing their conduct disorders.
The holistic approach to healing adolescents’ conduct disorder teaches them coping abilities that transfer to other facets of the adolescents’ life, especially when they return home. Forcing adolescents to change their behavior is an artificial solution that will not have the long-lasting effects that occur when the adolescents makes the choice to change.

The compulsion to rebel against the authority figures represented by the counselors is removed in the wilderness therapy model. The adults are no longer the “enemy,” because they do not impose artificial rules on the adolescents. Wilderness therapy gives the arena of control to the adolescents; they must learn that their actions do have consequences and to take responsibility for those actions. The exposure to the natural environment and the presence and influence of positive role models produces an overwhelming metamorphosis for change in an adolescent, increasing their sense of self-worth and their sense of value as an individual within society.

Works Cited

Agnew, Robert. Juvenile Delinquency. Los Angeles: Roxbury Publishing Company, 2005.

Amesberger, Guenter. “Theoretical Considerations of Therapeutic Concepts in Adventure Therapy.” In Exploring the Boundaries of Adventure Therapy: International Perspectives, edited by Christian M. Itin, 21-36. Boulder, Colorado: The Association for Experiential Education, 1998.

Bedard, Rachel Marie. “Wilderness Therapy Programs for Juvenile Delinquents: A Meta-Analysis.” PhD diss., Colorado State University, 2004.

Caltabiano, Marie Louise. “Main and Stress-Moderating Health Benefits of Leisure.” Society and Leisure 18 (1995): 33-52.

Caulkins, Michael C., Dave D. White, and Keith C. Russell. “The Role of Physical Exercise in Wilderness Therapy for Troubled Adolescent Women.” Journal of Experiential Education 29 (2006): 18-37.

Fletcher, Teresa B., and J. Scott Hinkle. “Adventure Based Counseling: An Innovation in Counseling.” Journal of Counseling and Development 80, no. 3 (Summer 2002): 277-85.

Mitten, Denise. “Adventure Therapy as Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM).” In Coming of Age: The Evolving Field of Adventure Therapy, edited by Scott Bandoroff, and Sandra Newes, 240-260. Boulder, Colorado: Association for Experiential Education, 2004.

Newes, Sandra and Scott Bandoroff. “What is Adventure Therapy?” In Coming of Age: The Evolving Field of Adventure Therapy, edited by Scott Bandoroff, and Sandra Newes, 1-30. Boulder, Colorado: Association for Experiential Education, 2004.

Outward Bound International. “History,” http://www.outwardbound.net/about/history.html (accessed December 1, 2007).

Outward Bound International. “International Expansion,” http://www.outwardbound.net/about/history/expansion.html (accessed December 1, 2007).

Pryor, Anita, Cathryn Carpenter, and Mardie Townsend. “Outdoor Education and Bush Adventure Therapy: A Socio-ecological Approach.” Australian Journal of Outdoor Education 9 (Jan 1, 2005):3.

Reppucci, N. Dickon. “Adolescent Development and Juvenile Justice.” American Journal of Community Psychology 27 (1999): 307-326.

Russell, Keith. “What is Wilderness Therapy?” The Journal of Experiential Education 24 (Fall 2001): 70-79.

Russell, Keith, and Dianne Philips-Miller. “Perspectives on the Wilderness Therapy Process and Its Relation to Outcome” Child & Youth Care Forum 31 (December 2002): 415-437.

U.S. Department of Justice. Juvenile Offenders and Victims:2006 National Report, by Howard N. Snyder and Melissa Sickmund. Pittsburg, PA: National Center for Juvenile Justice, March 2006.

Williams, Bryant. “The Treatment of Adolescent Populations: An Institutional vs. a Wilderness Setting.” Journal of Child and Adolescent Therapy 10 (2000): 47-56.

Shift Work Dad: A Resourceful
Memoir for Fathers in the Field

Micah Wheat

There was a point in time when I was working with a student who needed staff assistance with the changing of his diapers on shift and then just hours later actually changing my daughters own soiled diapers. I think this was the first time that realized how spread thin I was feeling. I was putting in 3-4 day shifts each week and then stepping back into the father role on my off days. The feeling was definitely mirrored in my wife as she was left by herself with an infant/toddler while I was away.

My intentions are not to have everyone to begin to cry and moan here and feel bad for me or to enlighten you to the Aida Blue Wheat Diaper Foundation, (which by the way is a great non-profit where you can donate a small portion of your paycheck to ensure that my daughter will have clean diapers) it is just to pass along a few ideas or tools I have used to survive those years as a Shift Work Dad. Such tools as to how to still support your family at home while you are on shift, how to let a hard shift go and not take that murky energy home with you, and how to let a hard thing go at home before you enter work.

Now I know some of you can and might already know this and are skipping the page, not a problem with me, and this might seem like just another book about the A.T., but I wanted to pass along my personal experiences to those who might be in the trenches in the field/shift work as a new parent. I will chunk down the tools I have picked up into three categories; pre-shift, during shift, and post shift.

Pre Shift

There can be obvious overlap between pre-shift and post-shift, given that you are in a sense off-shift during both of these times. One thing I mentioned earlier is letting go of things happening at home that can distract you from offer the best services possible while at work. Don’t go to sleep angry. If you and your spouse had an argument or you noticed 42 new gray hairs due to your toddler’s resistance to potty training, let it go that night. Process this out, drink another beer, eat some good cheese, or watch a movie on the same couch because tomorrow is a new day. Be mindful that this is your partner’s and spouse last impression of you and you are leaving them for a period of time. Find the energy to take point before you leave and let your spouse take a shower, sleep in, make them breakfast, or just have some personal time before you go.

While on the way to work the most important thing is the last song you listen to, especially if you are going into the woods. Your shift partner will not work with you ever again if you continually sing the chorus of either “Yellow Submarine”, “Hot Blooded”, or really any song that you can only remember the chorus to.

During Shift

If time/policies allows phone calls home can be a very positive thing. It can be a very comforting thing to receive a supportive call. Be sure to listen, both sides of this are working hard to make the family work. By default, your spouse’s frustrations need to be heard first, and if they don’t ask how your day went, let it go. This is not one you are going to win here.

Cute emails also go a long way as well. Take time for your self while on shift. If coverage allows, take a walk, listen to music, sit still somewhere, or exercise just to release any energy still lingering from home life. We really can’t control anything in this world, so if you find you are stressed at work due to something happening (or not happening) at home, let it go. I would also assume you have a professional support service there with a therapist type staff member for your students. If so, see if they have a minute to listen to your concerns. If that is not an option, I would also assume that a professional service could be provided by your company through insurance. It works…trust me.

The main focus here should be on the clients we serve and this can be the most helpful tool – refocusing on the moment. Life isn’t always about what we need, it can be about what we can do for others, and this might take your stress level down a notch or two. Have fun with your group, they miss someone too!!!!

Post Shift

The first tool that needs to be used here is to let go of any funky energy you have from your shift. I will encourage you to process this out with your treatment team before you go. If that energy walks in the door at home, you better have a case of beer, roses, and lot of chocolate, because your spouse and child are going to see that dark cloud above you.

The drive home is especially crucial. I know in these times of economic down turn or what not, carpooling is popular, but every once and a while, drive by yourself. This way you have that last moment of personal time to turn up those previously mentioned songs, cuss real loud, smoke one more cigarette, or do what you need to refuel for the next shift. Ah, parenthood for the wilderness counselor!

What is a Father to Do?
John Philip Rogers

What was a father to do? My oldest son was about to be 15, my youngest son almost 12 and I had a daughter sandwiched in between. I desperately desired to be an important part of their lives however, the older they became the more difficult that seemed to be. When they were infants simply holding them and talking to them nonsensically brought a smile to their faces. As toddlers, running and wrestling seemed to fill the bill.
My oldest son turned five when I began my tenure as coach. It all started with coaching his tee ball team and for the next 10 years, little league baseball and soccer would allow me to spend that extra time with each of my children. All of that ended eventually. They became involved in youth activities at our church, of which I was thankful; however, since I was not a sponsor, I was very limited in the role I could play. If they continued in organized sports, it would be with the schools they attended and as such, I wouldn’t be their coach. In this state of affairs, I could only encourage and support them in their endeavors from a distance. For me, that was simply not enough. I wanted to be a part of that transition from dependence to independence, from adolescence to adulthood.

Hence the question, what is a father to do? What did I do? I went to the expert, my oldest son. I asked him what we could do together. We had experience with family camping and he enjoyed that very much but he seemed hesitant. As we continued to talk, it became evident that he wanted something more challenging, more adventurous. The conversation then turned to backpacking and so the adventure began. That discussion was ten years ago. Wow, how time flies when you are having fun! During the past ten years, some combination of my three children and I have logged hundreds of trail miles together, many of which have been on the Appalachian Trail.

The years and miles have been rich with not simply fun but experience. We began so “green” to backpacking that we made the usual and not so usual mistakes. We have packed items that we didn’t need which resulted in ungodly pack weights. We have attempted to go light and left items behind that later we wished we had and had to come off the trail early because of being unprepared for changing weather. We have experienced heat and sweat as well as cold and sweat. We have prayed for a cool breeze and the warmth of the sunshine. We have been through the fog both literally and figuratively. We have spent hours talking and being silent. We have been happy together, angry together, sad together, laughed together and inwardly cried together.

We have been peaceful together and anxious together. We have felt success, victory, achievement, concern and fear. We have stood in awe on the mountaintop and walked pensively through the valley, together. We have made mistakes and learned lessons, together. The great thing is that we did it together!

What a wonderful relationship that backpacking has helped me to cement with my now grown children. We still backpack together when we get the opportunity. This year, my youngest son and I will meet with other friends and spend about five days in the White mountains of New Hampshire. Let the adventure continue.
*****
Philip Rogers is completing his Masters degree in Counseling and intends to use his strong interest in wilderness therapy professionally.

Wilderness Therapy and Spirituality
Lauren Rothwell

Wilderness therapy is a therapeutic process intended for young people struggling with a variety of mental health concerns. There is limited research about this rapidly growing treatment modality, but what is known is that wilderness therapy seems to be one of the best ways to positively affect young people because of the research regarding recidivism rates, symptom reduction and client/parent reports. Specifically within wilderness therapy research, this study looked at the possibility of spirituality as a factor of the wilderness therapy process. This study attempted to examine both concepts of wilderness therapy and spirituality in a therapeutic process with the question, “Can spirituality be a part of wilderness therapy?”

Introduction

Wilderness therapy is a concept that even people within the therapy profession have heard little. It is slowly carving out a corner of psychotherapy and is especially helpful for adolescent boys and girls struggling with mental health issues that are causing behavioral concerns (Russell and Phillips-Miller, 2002).
Wilderness therapy is structured in many different ways but essentially removes young people from environments that are deemed negative and places them in novel outdoor environments. The duration of stay in these outdoor environments may be anywhere from several weeks to two years. They may look mostly residential with wilderness experiences interlaced with the program, or they may be backpacking experiences completely emerged in the woods.

Some of the goals of the program are pushing the students to new levels of self discovery, forming new behavioral habits, and learning new skills that will make them more successful in their communications and interactions with others. These programs also aim to transition students back to their original environments in a way that will create successful paths for them after their wilderness therapy experiences. Even though wilderness therapy has been making its mark for many years, there is not an abundant amount of literature on the topic. The literature does suggest that wilderness therapy can be more effective for adolescents than any other traditional therapy model (Powch, 1994).

Wilderness therapy is worth continuing to examine because of its promising statistics on symptom reduction and recidivism for appropriate cliental (Russell and Phillips-Miller, 2002; Russell, 2003; Williams, 2000). This study explored the possibility that spirituality can be found in wilderness therapy as well. Several researchers have argued that nature is a key component to connection with spirituality, and some have gone so far as to say it is necessary (Burton, 2002;
Powch, 1994; Stone, 1971). Given this information, there is value to investigating whether forms of spirituality are present in wilderness therapy programs. This question was investigated here by interviewing wilderness therapy counselors. These participants work and live with students in their programs and have the most exposure to the experiences students have while in the programs.
Literature Review

Wilderness therapy has roots that date back to the early 1900s (Powch, 1994). Many concepts have been introduced and expanded upon to divide the therapy into various specific practices (i.e. adventure therapy, outdoor behavioral therapy and experiential therapy). Without the therapeutic component, spirituality and outdoor experiences blend frequently within organized religions and spiritual affiliations (Balles, 2004; Hunter & Sawyer, 2006; McFague, 1997).
Furthermore, without the wilderness component, research shows that therapeutic practices sometimes bring spirituality into the room (Pargament, 2001).
However, the integration of spirituality into the therapy is rare when compared to the number of clinicians and clients who identify with a certain religion or spirituality (Walker, et. al., 2004; Pargament, 2001).

Before proceeding, it is paramount that the concept of spirituality be clarified. Crossley and Salter (2005) collect a variety of definitions. They sum up the meaning by saying that spirituality is “the perspective or aspect in which the world is held distinct from the content of life (Hayes, 1984), or to a quest for meaning that is beyond the material aspects and the impermanence of things in life (Nino, 1997).”

Wilderness Therapy

Wilderness therapy programs essentially involve four aspects: 1) emersion into a wilderness setting; 2) living with peers; 3) group and individual therapeutic processes and 4) outdoor and psychoeducation. Staff use these to identify and work on behavioral issues, improve social skills and improve emotional identification and regulation (Russell and Phillips-Miller, 2002). Wilderness therapy was modeled on Outward Bound, which now inspires people to discover themselves through exposure to wilderness challenges (“Outward Bound,” 2007). Originally, Outward Bound aimed to prepare British seamen to endure the voyage at sea in 1942.

Even before this, Kurt Hahn, in Germany, first created the idea of experiential education based on his theory that values such as compassion and tenacity could be best learned though experience (Powch, 1994). Williams (2000) and Fletcher and Hinkle (2002) argued that wilderness therapy also has roots from Dr. MacDonald in 1901 at the New York Asylum. He made the decision to move psychiatric patients to the lawns in tents to alleviate overcrowding. Doctors were shocked to see improvement in the conditions of these patients and the concept of “tent therapy” was introduced.

Wilderness therapy has moved far beyond tent therapy. There are additional factors that must be considered to bring an intentional therapeutic focus to the
work. Russell and Phillips-Miller (2002) carefully outlined what these considerations should be:
a) The design of the program should be therapeutically based, with the assumptions made clear and concise, in order to best determine target outcomes and evaluate the effectiveness of treatment
b) The careful selection of candidates should be based on a clinical assessment and should include the creation of an individual treatment plan for each participant
c) The provision of individual and group psychotherapy should be facilitated by qualified individual professionals, with an evaluation of an individual’s progress a critical component of the program, and
d) At the conclusion of the program, qualified staff should work with
appropriate professionals to create an aftercare plan that is best suited for the individual to maintain any therapeutic progress that has been made.

Williams also added that wilderness therapy works especially well for adolescents because of their developmental stage. Their minds typically work within concrete operations, depending on their progression from concrete to abstract thinking, and they are commonly drawn to high-risk activities. The criteria laid out by Russell and Phillips-Miller for wilderness therapy are based on a model that cannot always be implemented according to protocol, but research
has indicated that wilderness therapy is, in general, effective for symptom reduction and recidivism and can be more effective than traditional styles of therapy when working with young people (Russell and Phillips-Miller, 2002; Russell, 2003; Williams, 2000).

In one example, Russell studied adolescents in a 45-day program. He surveyed clients and their parents at admission and termination of the program. Russell found that symptoms of behavior disorders, substance abuse and mood disorders not only reduced significantly over the period of time, but that these symptom reductions were maintained 12 months after treatment (Russell, 2003).
Russell (2003) reported that more than 100 programs now exist and serve more than 10,000 clients a year, so as the efficacy reputation strengthens so does the popularity. These studies strengthened the evidence that youth respond well to learning experientially versus the traditional indoor talk therapy.

Russell and Phillips-Miller (2002) added to the evidence of the efficacy of wilderness therapy. Their research indicated that the basic components of wilderness therapy already defined (exercise, primitive camping, peer relationship building and group building, plus the relationship formed with therapeutic field staff) all contributed significantly as positive change elements for the enrolled youth (Russell and Phillips-Miller, 2002).

The last component can be especially salient for many of the youth and is a theme for many therapeutic programs. Many researchers agreed that the relationship between wilderness counselors and youth is crucial to success for these youth (Williams, 2002; Lyman, Prentice-Dunn, & Gabel, 1989; Fletcher & Hinkle, 2002). Youth may feel a special bond as a result of the interpersonal situations in which the wilderness counselors and client find themselves. Many standard barriers for this kind of relationship are broken down when staff and youth are living in the same environment and accomplishing wilderness challenges together. Williams added that the relationship a student experiences is powerful and is especially helpful for “needy” or at risk teens.

According to Lyman, et al. (1989), wilderness counselors can be significant role models who approach the relationship with their youth with little hierarchy. As youth enter the wilderness, they come to rely on their wilderness counselors for guidance in their experience as trust begins to build. According to Fletcher and Hinkle (2002), these are just a few of the many skills needed in a successful wilderness counselor. Pushing youth to attempt challenges they find too risky is important. A skilled understanding of the therapist to know when to push and when to initiate “challenge by choice” for the youth is crucial to holding both the trusting relationship and being therapeutically helpful to the student.

Wilderness can break down barriers in a therapeutic relationship and also serve to challenge youth, to awaken them to a larger sense of self. Lyman et al. (1989) would go so far as to say that a spiritual experience happens for many youth in wilderness therapy programs as they spend more time in the wilderness and, on some unconscious level, regard it as a sacred space.

Spirituality and Therapy

In 2002, PBS’s program NOW, “Society and Community”, included a statistic that claimed 87% of Americans consider themselves religious (Moyers, 2002). This poses the question whether spiritual issues and conversations are being addressed in therapeutic sessions in quantities that line up with the needs of people who identify spiritually. Walker et al. (2004), Davis, Kerr, Robinson-Kurpius, (2003), and Pargament (2001) make a case that there are significant reasons for incorporating spirituality into therapy on a more regular basis. Spirituality shows positive outcomes in subjective well-being, self-esteem and physical health (Davis et al., 2003). Walker et al. (2004) contended that this idea has a long way to go because spirituality is underutilized in the traditional therapeutic setting. Pargament (2001) stated that much of this is not happening due to a lack of interest on the part of the therapists to reach out to the
religious community.

With more collaborating between the spiritual and mental health
communities, Pargament (2001) suggested several techniques that could be helpful. These included using the religious definition of forgiveness to help clients move from painful pasts, using culturally religious rituals that may help with transitions and introducing meditation as a method of anxiety reduction.
The findings of Walker et al. (2004) suggested that those therapists who do consider themselves religious are more willing to use spiritual methods in therapy and address spiritual subjects than their non-religious counterparts.

Crossley and Salter (2005) supported this statement with their research that indicates that one deterrent for approaching spirituality in the therapy room is that therapists don’t have a consistent idea of what spirituality means and what an approach looks like. They said that the therapists’ own relationships with spirituality hindered them from including it in their therapeutic settings more so than education about the issue.

Spirituality in Wilderness

For the purposes of simplicity, wilderness and nature will be used interchangeably. Wilderness or nature interacts with spirituality on many levels. It is both a foundation from which spirituality is built and a component of how spirituality is practiced (Burton, 2002; Powch, 1994; Stone, 1971). Besthorn (2002a) spoke to the necessity of awareness of nature to be able to achieve a holistic self. He also brought an historical perspective regarding the origins as a human race to innately look outward to nature to meet all of its needs and use these gifts as a way to access spirituality with a love and respect of all nature has to offer (Besthorn, 2002a, 2002b).

From a theoretical perspective, Besthorn (2002b) introduced the idea of biophilia. “…human beings not only derive specific aesthetic benefits from interacting with
nature but that the human species has an instinctive, genetically-determined need to deeply affiliate with natural settings and life forms…. The desire to affiliate with other sentient, nonhuman organisms and ecosystems and the response people have to them is innately biological and intensely emotional.
The human response to these affiliations has complex benefits, which not only enhance our psychic and physical well-being but are critical to our continued survival as a species.” (Besthorn, 2002b, p. 19)

In essence, he argued that not only is nature important to spirituality, but necessary for all aspects of human life. This body of research stated that nature evokes roots in specific belief systems, spiritual inspiration and values of responsibility as spiritual beings (Besthorn, 2002; Burton, 2002; Fredrickson & Anderson, 1999; Hageneder, 2001; Powch, 1994; Stone, 1971).

From a Biblical perspective, nature is a gift from God, something that He controls, and humans are a part of this process (Stone, 1971). This is a foundation for beliefs of Christianity based on the respect and power of nature.
From Native American spirituality, nature brings contemplation and connection
with the spiritual world. There are many specific rituals that are enmeshed with nature. Two examples of this would be the burying of the placenta so that the new child and earth may be connected, and rites of passages for youth in nature (Burton, 2002). Many people have referred to spiritually inspired by wilderness (Burton, 2002; Fredrickson & Anderson, 1999; Hageneder, 2001).
One particular study conducted by Fredrickson and Anderson (1999) examined two groups of women sent on wilderness expeditions and asked to keep journals of their thoughts and experiences.

They were asked follow up questions. Most participants reported that the actual experience of seeing new and powerful views of nature and the experience of being in a group during this experience inspired them spiritually. These women reported that they were able to take the inspirations with them after the termination of the trip. In, addition, many reported a “religious or spiritual experience” after working through a particularly difficult physical challenge that their wilderness trip provided (Fredrickson & Anderson, 1999).

Hageneder (2001) also wrote hundreds of pages about the spiritual inspiration found in trees. “I felt that my life could not be beautiful without the existence of something greater and wiser than me. I looked to the tree again and unconsciously surrendered to its divine source of inspiration. (Hageneder, 2001, p. 11). Again, spiritual experiences are touched on in Native American spirituality from the perspective of an author, Burton (2002), who was able to join a ceremony. He discussed being removed from his current mindset and placed in a beautiful setting in nature and the spiritual inspiration this brought. Wilderness can provoke a sense of values represented by particular spiritualities based on responsibility and respect for all parts of Earth.

The wilderness component of wilderness therapy can be an effective therapeutic process. Lyman and Prentice-Dunn argued a number of reasons why the wilderness setting is essential including an absence of modern stimuli, the enforcement of natural consequences and the positive reinforcement of mastery through wilderness challenges. Wilderness experience is differentiated from nature as an actual experience interacting with wilderness on some level (i.e.
camping, solo expeditions, etc). These extreme states of consciousness and sensory awareness are found here to lead to a personal sense of spiritual inspiration (Fredrickson & Anderson, 1999).

Powch (1994) also claimed that the essence of wilderness therapy includes a healing process on a spiritual level where the self realizes its connection with powers and forces greater than itself. She also stated that it is the role of the wilderness therapist in this spiritual growth process to help guide and facilitate. Not only is spirituality a part of the wilderness therapeutic experience but cannot be separated or ignored. Besthorn (2002a) backed this theory up with his research on self-identity in youth as it relates to wilderness therapeutic experiences. His research included quotes from youth about how they feel nature-focused spiritual experiences in their bodies.

Some wilderness programs are created with a Native American theme that dictates their daily rituals, names of locations and even names they use to address each other. For example, Eckerd programs are
alternative options for adolescents. Their camps have Native American names and are not alone in their Native American approach to evening ceremonies that include sitting around a fire and speaking one at a time in an effort to share respect for talking time. Hunter and Sawyer (2006) spoke to this idea. They claimed that Native American spirituality teaches its children about mastery without competition, responsibility to themselves, others and nature, and independence to make decisions for themselves, holding themselves accountable to those consequences.

Tying back to the goals wilderness therapy programs strive to teach their youth, one may wonder how much credit of what wilderness therapy programs are built upon should be given to Native American spirituality influences.

Methodology

The purpose of this research is to explore the presence of spirituality in wilderness therapy. In this exploratory study, the opinions of wilderness field staff of wilderness therapeutic programs were used to answer the research question: Can spirituality be a part of wilderness therapy? The focus of the interview questioning was based on how and when do these professionals see spirituality present in the lives of youth at wilderness therapy programs, if at all. If they did see it, they were asked to elaborate and focus on any spiritual experiences.

The data were collected using a qualitative research process based on a flexible research design method. This allowed collecting rich data that could formulate theory and questions for future studies. This may also expand wilderness therapy research and spirituality in a way that would allow others to build on these findings with quantitative research. An interview guide with semi-structured, open-ended questions was used with participants in one-on-one interviews. Staff answered nine open-ended questions, most containing two or three parts. Follow-up questions were also asked when necessary to expand or elaborate on issues in the conversation.

Sample

The participant pool consisted of 12 wilderness field staff from four different wilderness therapy programs in the southern US. The sample size was intentional as it provided enough data to draw themes and results, but not so much to run into the dangers of overwhelming or selective data. All participants were wilderness counselors and were over the age of 18. Wilderness counselors in general may have differing job titles depending on the specific program, but any person working in the field with youth in a position that provides regular and consistent interactions will fall under the category of wilderness counselor.
Convenience sampling was used and came from a specific population of therapeutic. Some snowball sampling was also utilized. As Anastas (1999) pointed out, it can be limiting for all participants to come from one agency. To prevent this, four different agencies were used.

There was diversity across age, gender and represented program, but limited variation in cultural or racial background. The range in age was 24 to 64. The gender make up was 5 females and 7 males. Eleven of the participants were European American and one was an African American. Eleven stated that they currently had a spiritual identity. All subjects had a history of spirituality or religion as a part of their lives at some point.

Data Collection

The structure of the data collection was based on an open-ended, semi-structured interview. This interview followed an interview outline as a “special case conversation, an event in which two participants are to one extent or another mutually influencing the interaction and thus the data it will yield” (Anastas, 1999, p. 354). By this model, the researcher can delve more with follow-up questions if relevant to what the participants are saying.

Data Analysis

The data analysis process was based on a three-part process recommended by Anastas (1999): Data reduction, data display and conclusion drawing. In the first stage, the data has to be transformed from interview form. Interviews were digitally tape-recorded in a way that allowed the researcher to download and transcribe interviews on the computer.

The transcriptions were examined closely to pull out themes. These themes began the first parts of coding. Inductive coding was used to code for different stages in order to pull themes from the transcriptions. As themes formed, they were pulled into code units, the most commonly used phrases or paragraphs.
The coding or labeling was in vivo, meaning the codes are based on actual content of the participants’ words. The coding followed the five elements of good thematic code recommended by Anastas and taken from Boyatzis (1998, p. 420):
1. A label
2. A definition of what the theme contains
3. A description of what the theme contains
4. A description of how to know when the theme occurs
5. Examples, both positive and negative, to eliminate possible confusion when looking for the theme.

Grounded theory formed the underlying guideline. This decision was based on the emphasis in grounded theory of constant comparison. It also incorporated the
techniques of open coding and axial coding that lined up with the coding techniques. In this way, space for themes and trends to be revealed could be allowed as the data was coded. Anastas (1999) also warned researchers to be cautious of validity and reliability being compromised as the researcher draws themes. She stated that it is easy to discredit other emerging themes as original themes are solidifying. She also stated credibility increases as the link between data and meaning becomes more and more direct.

Findings

This qualitative study was conducted to explore the possible presence of spirituality as part of wilderness therapy. The study investigated opinions of wilderness therapy counselors about the potential benefits and harm of introducing spirituality into their work. The narratives of therapeutic wilderness staff members revealed a variety of opinions and stories related to their identification with their own spirituality, their evaluations of the wilderness therapy, and their experiences related to the presence or absence of spirituality in their work with their students.

Upon analyzing the data, it became evident that spirituality worked as a function of wilderness therapy to allow students to develop introspection, to experience community engagement and to live practices that promote wellness. In order to elaborate, the findings are broken down into four themes. The first theme will report participants’ notions of their own spirituality to bring context to the following three themes. This theme will also illustrate how their own spirituality parallel those they attribute to successful wilderness programs and values they attribute to spiritual growth for students. The second theme will address how wilderness therapy is successful for students apart from the spiritual dimension. The third theme concerns how wilderness therapy fosters a spiritual growth process for students.

Finally, the fourth theme addresses the risks and criticisms for spirituality in wilderness therapy programs. If the ideas shared by the participants about spirituality in their programs were to be critically evaluated for possible implementation, it would be important that the noted limitations and reservations for involving spirituality in wilderness therapy be explored. Overall, the findings indicated that as wilderness therapy fosters spiritual growth for students, spiritual growth also allows for the positive change that creates therapeutic success for students.

Participant Spirituality

Participants were asked to talk about their current spiritual identity, if any, and any history to their spiritual development. Everyone reported a history of growing up with Christianity at some point in their lives. Two of twelve of the participants had parents who were ministers, and one of the participants was a non-practicing ordained Christian minister. Two of the participants defined themselves as Christian. Five of the participants defined their spirituality as a personal spiritual journey that doesn’t fit into a religious or spiritual title. Two participants defined themselves as agnostic. One participant defined himself as Catholic Monastic, one Zen Buddhist, and one aligned with Hinduism and mindfulness/ meditation.
These participants also elaborated on what values they associated with their spiritual beliefs. These broke into four categories:
1. Connection to self,
2. Connection to others,
3. Religious/spiritual ceremonial practices and values, and,
4. Connection to nature.

Three counselors stated that their spirituality was an individual endeavor to know themselves better and hold themselves accountable. As one put it, “for me spirituality is being just like, trying to overcome my own personal issues in my life due to my own will… trying to make myself a better person, you know,
emotionally secure and more emotionally open to the world.” Eight of the participants made reference to the importance of connection to others. Four of these eight emphasized contributing to the well being of others as an important component of their spirituality. Three of the eight emphasized the belief that acceptance of all and the understanding that everyone is a part of a greater oneness. For example, one said, “The truth is that we’re all really one. One connected spirit. And that God is not outside of us. Well, God is outside of us, but inside of us too. It’s really that everything is connected and that individual self is an illusion that dissolves into a great field of energy or however you want to put that – timelessness, unchanging consciousness awareness.”

One participant responded that the essence to her spirituality was a supportive community. Five of the participants mentioned spiritual or religious practices. Two of these noted that they attended a church and three revealed that they pray or meditate. In addition, five participants specifically included that morals were important to the make-up of their spirituality. Two of the five alluded to a general adherence to the moral conduct of their spirituality. As one said, “As I am a father and husband, now begins the new quest of how do I instill those beliefs that my father and mother instilled in me as far as what religion does for you, or spirituality, as far as core values; how you treat people, how you treat yourself. I think it’s just a code of conduct, for lack of better words, on how you should live.”

Two of the five specifically referenced a moral belief in the goodness of others and one believed in the principle, by doing good, good will come. Four of the counselors referenced connection to nature as fundamental to their spirituality.
Two of the four specifically mentioned moving to the mountains for the outdoor activities. Three of them also elaborated how actually being outdoors brings them closer to their spirituality. For example, “I could be hiking and the clouds will clear and you can see this amazing, amazing view. And it’s like, that was awesome. You can see that, and appreciate that there’s probably something behind that other than that’s a pretty mountain. “

Wilderness Therapy Success
The successes reported in this section are broken down into subthemes: Connection to self, connection to others and connection to nature. These subthemes encompass what participants name as most important to create therapeutic success for students. It is interesting to note that these successes also parallel subthemes of the spiritual growth section. This observation supports the overarching theme that spirituality is a function for successful wilderness experiences. Every one of the participants stated that wilderness therapy was successful for their students.

Participants reported students’ ability to connect to self, ability to connect to others, students’ relationships with staff and students’ interaction with nature as essential for success in wilderness therapy programs. To reiterate, these factors are also the essence of what participants report as indicators of spiritual growth for students.

Student Connection to Self

Connection to self encompasses students’ motivation for change, students’ self discovery and students’ responsibility to take care of themselves. Four of the participants stated that students must first want to change for the program to be successful for them. They saw students who did not progress much because they didn’t want to be there and then students who made tremendous changes when they chose. Motivation was key to this process as two participants reported that wilderness therapy programs are based on self-motivation and “challenge by choice.” Once students decide to engage in the program, many participants reported that self-discovery was essential to any growth or change in the program. “For example, with hiking, a lot of students have trouble hiking, but by the end of the program…they realize it’s just their minds that keep telling them things and like, their body could do it.” Three participants reported that their programs are designed to have a self reflection component for creating self-discovery.

As one counselor said, “It’s more based on development of intrinsic motivation and learning about yourself.” Four of the participants noted that part of their job was helping students work through their issues in a self-discovery process.
Most notable were participants’ reports of students’ self-discovery when implementing parts of the program that immersed the students in nature. Five participants stated that when distractions were eliminated, the students they were able to get in touch with themselves. “Just so much is going on all the time that a lot of kids make it to early teenage years without really having any sense of their imagination or their own capabilities. Life can be so fast for them, being here lets them slow down and take a real look in the mirror, it seems like, without all the makeup on.”

“Or all the pressures, you know, they may have gotten into a crowd or to a routine at home that is not helpful, but now it’s hard for young people to kind of step back sometimes and really honestly say what they need to do, what they know they need to do.”

“You kind of take them out of that environment and put them into something completely novel and something that’s completely at the core of being a human being…it puts everything in a more simple language so that they can sort out what’s really going on instead of having all this external stimulus.”

The final component to connection to self by participants was students’ awareness of the need to take care of themselves. Five counselors reported changes noted in the progress of the students based on their ability to take responsibility for themselves.

Student Connection to Others

Connection to self is only one building block that participants reported as crucial to a successful experience for students. Participants reported students’ ability to work with other students, connect with their wilderness counselors and build communication skills with parents that will ease their transition home. Four counselors reported that students become better at relationships with other students in their time in wilderness therapy. One participant elaborated on this. “If they are pleasers, they want to jump hoops so people will like them. If they like to intimidate everybody, they are actually scared to death. We can see it. So it’s almost like a psychodrama.”

Being in nature creates opportunities for communication with peers and teamwork skills. Two participants reported that students’ teamwork skills are crucial to surviving in the woods together. “Let’s say we’re backpacking and one student’s not kind of doing so well. They can either, one, make fun of the kid or, two, help the kid. And realize, ‘hey when I make fun of him, he’s not going to go anymore, he’s just going to completely stop hiking. Oh, when I help him, he’s going to go faster.’ And they see, ‘if I actually help this kid, or we help each other out,’ they can gain things from that, other than just making fun or being mean.”

Participants also noted that much of the successes are, in part, possible because of the relationships formed between wilderness counselors and students. Two participants mentioned that they go out of their ways to spend time with the students because they enjoy the interactions so much. Four participants reported that the students’ communication skills improve while in the wilderness therapy program. They stated that they are able to articulate their feelings, process with their peers, and communicate with authority figures in ways they were unable initially. Wilderness therapy programs may be successful for students because they teach communication skills that are helpful for their return to their parents and communities. Two counselors discussed the importance of preparing the students for home, which includes skill building to handle family dynamics. One stated, “Some of the parents say we really have to get used to my son. If we wanted to talk, he would put his fingers in [the process for speaking during group counseling] and it was so appropriate and he was able to articulate his feelings and it was very different than before he came to [the program]. He was frustrated, getting really angry and the group process really worked at home.”

Student Connection to Nature

Eight participants stated that nature was crucial to the success of the students they work with. “I think that almost every aspect of the fact that [the therapeutic program is] in the wilderness is immensely valuable and I guess the kernel of why I believe in wilderness programs.”

Participants reported that nature served to open new avenues for students. Four reported that the exposure to nature introduced different lifestyles for the students. This included a new passion for environmental conservation, a change in career ambitions, and change in extracurricular activities. “I think the woods can be a real safe space for boys to be boys.”

Some counselors noticed that over time students will also develop an appreciation of the beauty of nature. Six reported seeing students become inspired and taken aback by their natural surroundings. Three said that being in the woods is an opportunity for students to appreciate the materialistic items. One example mentioned was students who criticized the vans they were traveling in, and at the end of their weekend in the woods, they were very appreciative of the same van that would transport them out of the woods.

Spirituality in Wilderness Therapy

Students also seem to have a significant opportunity for spiritual growth, according to participants. In fact, these spiritual growth opportunities and successful therapeutic experiences seem to go hand in hand and benefit one another. These wilderness counselors stated that their own values of being in relationship, finding spirituality in nature, and participating in ceremonies seemed to inform how they see spiritual growth happening for their students. Ten of them reported seeing some spiritual experiences happen for students at their programs. It seemed that understanding of spirituality began to evolve as they talked it out, and they would incorporate more and more into their definition of spiritual experiences at wilderness therapy programs.

There were several components participants reported as contributing to spiritual growth that can be divided into sub-themes. These were the programs’ ceremonies and rituals, religious and or spiritual education, relationships with staff members, students’ connections to nature, and innate spiritual process that could not be attributed to a catalyst. The ideas of student introspection, community engagement and lived practices that promote wellness emerged and illustrated the major theme that spiritual growth is a function of wilderness therapy and success for students.

Ceremonies and Rituals

The importance of ceremonies and rituals was mentioned briefly as a value for counselors in their own spiritual journeys as well as their students. Nine participants reported that ceremonies and rituals were a part of their programs and two mentioned that more spiritual activities should be incorporated.
These practices included quiet time before meals, meditation, journaling, sweat lodges, smudging, labyrinths, yoga, solo expeditions and mental focusing exercises. It was reported that these practices seemed to encourage self reflection and connection to self. One participant acknowledged the importance of the solo expeditions, stating that this was an opportunity for the students to really sit with themselves. They have reflection questions to answer, and it is part of their time to see what they have accomplished at the program before they return home.

In addition, another two participants specifically noted the importance of journaling. They reported that the students can be given topics to journal about that encourage self-discovery. This practice can also signify transitions students have made in the program. All the programs have a quiet or meditative time before meals, and one program also has a “serenity prayer” in the mornings. These times can be used for religious or spiritual practices, but are also open for students to reflect about their days. All that was required was to remain silent.

One participant reported that students took turns leading spiritual activities. Student would pick something meaningful to read. Some students seemed more focused on a hero’s journey that included phases where the student would work on self-development and “conquering their own dragons” in a way that mimicked stories like Harry Potter, Sidhartha and Lord of the Rings. Participants also stated that many students have their own rituals and ceremonies that they mostly brought from home even though some students were exposed to them at their programs. Two counselors reported that they were more likely to see spiritual
practices emerge if the students were already spiritual. Five mentioned that their programs seem to reignite spiritual and religious practices. One participant reported that sometimes the kids who were more religious would say something like, “Wow I’m feeling really connected out here. Can I get a Bible, or can I get a Torah, or can I get a meditation book about this or that?” Sometimes the religions that they learned growing up start to kick back in, saying they
had not been to church in a while but now starting to think about God a lot.

This experience can recreate healthy habits that students may continue to practice after leaving. Four staff reported seeing students participate in the specific rituals of reading religious text and signing the. Two participants reported seeing their students form an interest in religious practices. Aside from the presence or absence of spiritual practices within the program, honoring the students’ own religious and spiritual needs was mentioned as an important part of what their programs do. This is yet another way that wilderness therapy programs are creating opportunities for introspection and healthy practices.
Two counselors said that their programs needed more resources for students to worship spiritually. One participant mentioned an Easter service field trip that was available for students to attend. Participants stated that students were allowed to have spiritual books upon request. They also mentioned that accommodations would be made to honor religious days and worship needs if possible, especially if this were the parents’ wishes.

Religious and Spiritual Education

Education and exposure were important when participants were asked to evaluate spirituality in their programs and implied that these participants realize that the opportunity to grow spiritually is an important process for the wilderness therapy experience. Ideas for exposure and education included field trips to different spiritual settings or requirements in the program for students to research different spiritualities. Bringing spiritual speakers in to educate students was acknowledged as another tool for connection to self and growth. They also mentioned open spaces where students can be encouraged to talk about spirituality with one another.

One participant noted that her program was already introducing religious or spiritual exploration by requiring their students to research spiritualities and report on them. Another clarified that spiritual education be labeled as exposure to values and connection instead of giving it any tie to spirituality or religion because it would be more welcoming for students and more likely to be accepted by administrators and staff. Three also highlighted, aside from incorporating spirituality and religious education for the purpose of students adopting these practices, that spiritual growth also happened as the program educated students about certain values that are associated with these spiritualities and religions.
Mentioned values included sacrifice, discipline, service, and hard work. One of these participants reported that thinking “it’s in a way ignorant to completely eliminate spirituality because that’s usually the ethical course behind people’s actions.”

Relationships with Staff

As participants exhibited their concern for spiritual exposure in their programs, it was not surprising that they valued their own as well as their co-workers’ contributions to the process. Relationship with staff was named as an important component for success for students. Seven participants reported the spiritual growth that happens for their students is in part through the relationship with their fellow staff. Staff members’ leadership in spiritual growth also served as a way to teach the students by example about community engagement as they model their interactions with one another. Their reports ranged from opening avenues for conversations with staff if students are interested to providing a discussion group about spiritual values and staff sharing their own beliefs. In one statement, a participant shared belief that parents are more reassured in sending their kids to the program because of staff spiritual affiliations. In all of these reports, it seemed most important that there be a balance between exposures of the staff’s beliefs and openness to encourage where the student wants to go with spirituality.

Three participants observed that staff openness to spirituality was an asset to connecting to students’ spirituality. Again, leading by the example of their own spiritual journeys, staff encourage students to explore themselves more fully.
These participants reported that their knowledge of different spiritualities and religions and their understanding of their own spirituality contributed to spiritual experiences with their students. One participant stated that he was able to use his understanding and background with Christianity to convince a Christian student not to act on his suicidal threats. Another reported that staff who can model spiritual values are important for students’ spiritual growth.

Five staff members were explicitly told not to discuss their spiritual or religious beliefs with students. These reports represented all the wilderness programs. They elaborated that from an administrative position it was not part of their program to incorporate spirituality in to their job role. In addition, two participants reported that their programs had a history of staff members pushing their religions onto the students. These staff members were said to be extreme in their beliefs and offended parents and students. As a result, participants reported that their programs have had to be more straight-forward in their policies to not force religion onto students. That being said, participants also mentioned that their administrators agree as long as there is a healthy balance in discussion with students about spirituality and the discussion is student initiated, then there isn’t a problem.

Connection to Nature

Connection to nature, even though not a major theme in itself, threaded its way through each major theme. Participants discussed how the students’ experience of nature was another avenue for spiritual growth. Connection to nature includes opportunities for student introspection, community engagement and wellness practices.

Seven counselors referenced nature as a catalyst for the students’ connection to spirituality. These specific parts of nature included the feeling one gets from hiking a mountain, the awe of white water rafting and even the connection one makes to a stick… “to him that stick is important, he cares about that stick… he has a connection with that, that has some value. If something happens to that stick, he’s going to experience sadness.”
Participants were able to quote students’ reactions to spiritual experiences in nature. One participant quoted, “I’ve never found God anywhere before, but I think I might have found God here. There must be a God, this is so beautiful. I think I found God here.”

Another participant recounted that when students are hiking, some just start talking about going back to church because that was a time when they were happy. Nature seems to be prompting them to remember other positive life practices that gave them a similar feeling to what they are feeling by being in nature. One participant attributed the connection to nature to the realization of sense of self and that spirituality is a part of that self they discover or re-discover. Another contributed that part of the self-discovery part of their program encourages spiritual growth saying spirituality in nature has been very rewarding to the students and they have acknowledged it and they talk about…”it is something you can do to help yourself to grow within”.

These conversations happen within the group context and create space to talk about emotions and experiences in a communication style that is new for most students. These staff elaborated about times when they saw their students make these same connections for the first time, and as these connections are
happening in outdoor experiences, they also are happening in a community setting.

Criticisms of Involving Spirituality in Wilderness Therapy

The reports about spiritual growth in wilderness therapy were bountiful. It is equally important, however to ask participants about their criticisms and reservations for implementing structured spiritual components into the programs where they work. These reports acknowledged both programmatic and logistical concerns as well as concerns they had for how this process could negatively affect the students. Their concerns can be categorized into three sub themes, conflict with their program goals for successful students, reservations of parents and possible negative side effects for students.

These four themes – participants’ spiritualities, successes in wilderness therapy, spiritual growth for students and criticisms and limitations – unfold to suggest that spiritual experiences and opportunities can serve a function in the success of wilderness therapy and may also be harmful to the therapeutic process. Some positive possibilities include the students’ ability to learn a deeper understanding of themselves, communicate and connect with others in unique and different ways, and learn healthy habits that they can hold on to after graduating the programs. On the other hand, spiritual integration could also be a distraction from the necessary work needed in a behavioral, concrete model. It also runs the risk of over- influencing students in vulnerable positions and could cause parents to lose interest in sending their children to a place that will involve spiritual education and exposure.
The wilderness therapeutic structures set up ceremonies, rituals, requirements and exposure to nature in ways that allow students the space to grow spiritually whether it is the intent of the program or not. The limitations and criticisms present logistical, ethical, practical and marketable challenges that caution jumping too quickly into the ideas and observations of most of the participants.

DISCUSSION

This study was based on the question, how can spirituality be a part of the wilderness therapeutic experience? It built on the assumption that it was possible to find spirituality in wilderness therapy but questioned whether field staff members of wilderness therapy programs saw spirituality as part of the work they did. An important distinction emerged in the interviews between whether spirituality found in the programs was intentionally structured into the programs or whether participants found that it emerged naturally. If it did emerge naturally, how did spirituality manifest in the opinions of the participants and what was it about wilderness therapeutic programs that created an environment that invited spiritual experiences? If it was structured in the programs, how was it done and was it appropriate?

The data yielded interesting findings. The overarching theme discovered was the notion that spirituality is a function of wilderness therapy that allowed the students to develop introspection, community engagement and lived practices that promote wellness. This was emphasized by the theme that stated wilderness therapy is successful because of its model that stresses connection to self, others and new life habits. In the literature, Russell and Phillips-Miller (2002) indicated that the basic components of wilderness therapy, exercise, primitive camping, peer relationship building and group building, plus the relationship formed with therapeutic field staff, all contributed significantly as positive-change elements for the enrolled youth.

In addition to Russell and Phillips-Miller, many researchers have agreed that the relationship between wilderness counselors and youth is crucial to success for these young people (Williams, 2002; Lyman et al., 1989; Fletcher & Hinkle, 2002). Their research elaborated on the importance of staff members being role models for students. The literature and findings both supported that the key element to making role modeling successful was through trust building between staff and students. The findings indicated that participants felt students needed to trust them before really listening to the guidance they provided and using them as role models. Fletcher and Hinkle (2002) stated that pushing youth to attempt
challenges that the student finds too risky is important, and a skilled understanding of the therapist to know when to push and when to initiate “challenge by choice” for the youth is crucial to holding both the trusting relationship and being therapeutically helpful to the student.

One counselor reported that it is part of the structure of the program to push students into uncomfortable positions so they have to shed their defenses and learn new coping skills to be successful. Another participant reported that the success of the program was in its ability to let students progress at their own pace and to feel empowered by making their own decisions. One of the major findings was that wilderness therapy can strengthen connection to self and an improved sense of self. This seemed to be a crucial element to a successful wilderness experience. Participants reported that wilderness therapy took away distractions and served as a mirror that gave students time to really get to know who they were and what changes they wanted to make.

This research was conducted to stretch the possibilities of what wilderness therapy can include in their programs to further enhance the services they offer their students. Spirituality was found in the programs through intentional programming, staff interventions, unplanned experiences, and practices students brought in themselves. Program administrators should investigate the best possible way to use this information to enhance the success of their programs and avoid unhealthy ways students may be experiencing spirituality at the programs. Some reports indicated that the topic was avoided because clinicians, administrators and field staff members have limited experience and education working with spirituality, bringing the importance of this research to a broader level.

The findings indicated that spirituality is a part of everyday experiences of students in wilderness therapy. It is reasonable to assume that clients in other therapeutic situations are also experiencing spirituality in their daily lives and in session. This suggested that the profession needs to give further consideration to the integration of spirituality and therapy. This research only scrapes the surface of what can be built on the idea of intentional spiritual integration into wilderness therapy programs. The counselors themselves gave inspiring ideas of countless ways to acknowledge spirituality when emerging in their work and to use it toward enhancing the success of these programs.

Lauren Rothwell
Smith College School for Social Work
Northampton, Massachusetts

Bibliography

Bacon, S. B., & Kimball, R. (1989). In Lyman R. D., Prentice-Dunn S. and Gabel S. (Eds.), The wilderness challenge model. New York: Plenum Press.

Balles, T. (2004). Dancing with the ten thousand things. Lincoln, NE: Universe, Inc.

Besthorn, F. H. (2002a). Natural environment and the practice of psychotherapy. Annals of the American Psychotherapy Association, 5(5), 19-20.

Besthorn, F. H. (2002b). Radical environmentalism and the ecological self: Rethinking the concept of self-identity for social work practice. Journal of Progressive Human Services, 13(1), 53-72.

Burton, L. (2002). Worship and wilderness: Culture, religion, and law in public lands management. Madison, Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin Press.

Crossley J. P. & Salter D. P. (2005) A question of finding harmony: A grounded theory study of clinical psychologists’ experience of addressing spiritual beliefs in therapy. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice. 78, 295-313.

Davis, T. L., Kerr, B. A., Robinson-Kurpius, S. E. (2003). Meaning, purpose, and religiosity in at-risk youth: the relationship between anxiety and spirituality. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 31(1), 356-366.

Fletcher, T. B. & Hinkle, J. S. (2002) Adventure based counseling: An innovation in counseling. Journal of Counseling and Development, 80(3). 277-286.

Fredrickson, L. M., & Anderson, D. H. (1999). A qualitative exploration of the wilderness experience as a source of spiritual inspiration. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 19(1), 21-39.

Hageneder, F. (2001). The spirit of trees: Science, symbiosis, and inspiration. New York: The Continuum International Publishing Group, Inc.

Hunter D. & Sawyer C. (2006). Blending Native American spirituality with Individual psychology in work with children. Journal of Individual Psychology. 62(3), 234-250.

Lyman R. D., Prentice-Dunn S. & Gabel S. (1989). Residential and inpatient treatment of children and adolescents. New York: Plenum Press.

McFague, S. (1997). Super, natural, Christians. Minneapolis: Fortress Press.

Moyers, Bill. (2002, April 7). Society and community, faith in America. NOW.

Retrieved November 30, 2007, from http://www.pbs.org/now/society/ religionstats.html.

Pargament K. I. (2001). The psychology of religion and coping: Theory, research, practice. New York: The Guilford Press.

Powch, I. G. (1994). Wilderness therapy: What makes it empowering for women? Women & Therapy, 15(3), 11-27.

Russell, K. (2003). An assessment of outcomes in outdoor behavioral healthcare treatment. Child & Youth Care Forum, 32(6), 355-381.

Russell, K. C., & Phillips-Miller, D. (2002). Perspectives on the wilderness Therapy process and its relation to outcome. Child & Youth Care Forum, 31(6), 415-437.

Stone, G. C. (1971). A new ethic for a new earth. United States: Friendship Press.

Walker D. F., Gorsuch R. L. & Tan S. (2004). Therapists’ integration of religion And spirituality in counseling: A meta-analysis. Counseling and Values, 49, 69-80.

Williams, B. (2000). The treatment of adolescent populations: An institution vs. a wilderness setting. Journal of Child and Adolescent Group Therapy, 10(1), 47-56.

Mission

Recent Updates

Topics

DONATIONS

Archives

Admin

Search

Get Email Updates

Menu

Corporate Sponsors

Links

Gallery

Journal of Therapeutic Wilderness Camping – Volume 8

Journal of Therapeutic Wilderness Camping